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elm (n.)
1.any of various trees of the genus Ulmus: important timber or shade trees
2.hard tough wood of an elm tree; used for e.g. implements and furniture
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Merriam Webster
ElmElm (?), n. [AS. elm; akin to D. olm, OHG. elm, G. ulme, Icel. almr, Dan. & Sw. alm, L. ulmus, and E. alder. Cf. Old.] (Bot.) A tree of the genus Ulmus, of several species, much used as a shade tree, particularly in America. The English elm is Ulmus campestris; the common American or white elm is U. Americana; the slippery or red elm, U. fulva.
Elm beetle (Zoöl.), one of several species of beetles (esp. Galeruca calmariensis), which feed on the leaves of the elm. -- Elm borer (Zoöl.), one of several species of beetles of which the larvæ bore into the wood or under the bark of the elm (esp. Saperda tridentata). -- Elm butterfly (Zoöl.), one of several species of butterflies, which, in the caterpillar state, feed on the leaves of the elm (esp. Vanessa antiopa and Grapta comma). See Comma butterfly, under Comma. -- Elm moth (Zoöl.), one of numerous species of moths of which the larvæ destroy the leaves of the elm (esp. Eugonia subsignaria, called elm spanworm). -- Elm sawfly (Zoöl.), a large sawfly (Cimbex Americana). The larva, which is white with a black dorsal stripe, feeds on the leaves of the elm.
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elm (n.)
Famille des Ulmacées (fr)[ClasseTaxo.]
bois de chauffage : selon l'essence (fr)[ClasseParExt.]
bois (essences) d'ébénisterie-menuiserie (fr)[ClasseParExt.]
bois d'œuvre : selon l'essence de l'arbre (fr)[ClasseParExt.]
genus Ulmus, Ulmus[membre]
sapling, tree[Hyper.]
elm (n.)
wood[Hyper.]
elm, elm tree[Element]
Wikipedia
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Elm | |
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Narrow-leafed Elm Ulmus minor subsp minor
East Coker, Somerset, UK. |
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Scientific classification | |
Kingdom: | Plantae |
(unranked): | Angiosperms |
(unranked): | Eudicots |
(unranked): | Rosids |
Order: | Rosales |
Family: | Ulmaceae |
Genus: | Ulmus L. |
Species | |
See |
Elms are deciduous and semi-deciduous tree comprising the genus Ulmus in the plant family Ulmaceae. The dozens of species are found in temperate and tropical-montane regions of North America and Eurasia, ranging southward into Indonesia. Elms are components of many kinds of natural forests. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, many species and cultivars of elms were planted as ornamental street, lawn, and park trees in Europe, North America, and parts of the Southern Hemisphere, notably Australasia. Some individual elms have reached great size and age. In recent decades, many elms of European or North American origin have died from the Dutch elm disease, a beetle-dispersed fungus; in response, horticulturists have developed various kinds of disease-resistant elm trees, allowing the genus to be increasingly used again in horticulture and landscaping.
Elm leaves are alternate, with simple, single- or, most commonly, doubly-serrate margins, usually asymmetric at the base and acuminate at the apex. The genus is hermaphroditic, having apetalous perfect flowers which are mostly wind-pollinated, although bees do visit them. The fruit is a round wind-dispersed samara flushed with chlorophyll, facilitating photosynthesis before the leaves emerge.[1] All species are tolerant of a wide range of soils and pH levels but, with few exceptions, demand good drainage.
The genus Ulmus first appeared in the Miocene geological period about 20 million years ago. Originating in what is now central Asia, these trees flourished and spread over most of the Northern Hemisphere, traversing the Equator in Indonesia.
The other genera of the Ulmaceae are Planera (water elm) and Zelkova (zelkova). The genus Celtis (hackberry or nettle tree), formerly included in the Ulmaceae, is now included in the family Cannabaceae.
'Sapporo Autumn Gold', IPP Monna Giovannella nursery, Antella, Florence
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There are about 30 to 40 species of Ulmus (elm); the ambiguity in number results from difficulty in delineating species, owing to the ease of hybridization between them and the development of local seed-sterile vegetatively propagated microspecies in some areas, mainly in the field elm (Ulmus minor) group. Rackham[2] describes Ulmus as the most difficult critical genus in the entire British flora, adding that 'species and varieties are a distinction in the human mind rather than a measured degree of genetic variation'. Eight species are endemic to North America, and a smaller number to Europe;[3] the greatest diversity is found in Asia.[4]
The classification adopted in the List of elm species, varieties, cultivars and hybrids is largely based on that established by Brummitt.[5] A large number of synonyms have accumulated over the last three centuries; their currently accepted names can be found in the list List of elm Synonyms and Accepted Names.
The name Ulmus is the classical name for these trees, with the English name "elm" and many other European names derived from it.[6]
The more abundant or better-known species of Ulmus include:
Dutch elm disease (DED) devastated elms throughout Europe and much of North America in the second half of the 20th century. Owing to its geographical isolation and effective quarantine enforcement, Australia has so far remained unaffected by Dutch Elm Disease, as have the provinces of Alberta and British Columbia in western Canada.
DED is caused by a micro-fungus transmitted by two species of Scolytus elm-bark beetle which act as vectors. The disease affects all species of elm native to North America and Europe, but many Asiatic species have evolved anti-fungal genes and are resistant. Fungal spores, introduced into wounds in the tree caused by the beetles, invade the xylem or vascular system. The tree responds by producing tyloses, effectively blocking the flow from roots to leaves. Woodland trees in North America are not quite as susceptible to the disease because they usually lack the root-grafting of the urban elms and are somewhat more isolated from each other. In France, inoculation with the fungus of over three hundred clones of the European species failed to find a single variety possessed of any significant resistance.
The first, less aggressive strain of the disease fungus, Ophiostoma ulmi, arrived in Europe from the Far East in 1910, and was accidentally introduced to North America in 1928, but was steadily weakened by viruses and had all but disappeared in Europe by the 1940s. The second, far more virulent strain of the disease Ophiostoma novo-ulmi was identified in Europe in the late 1960s, and within a decade had killed over 20 million trees (approximately 75%) in the UK alone. Approximately three times more deadly, the origin of the new strain remains a mystery. The most popular hypothesis is that it arose from a hybrid between the original O. ulmi and another strain endemic to the Himalaya, Ophiostoma himal-ulmi.[7]
While there is no sign of the current pandemic waning, there is some hope in the susceptibility of the fungus to a disease of its own caused by d-factors: naturally occurring virus-like agents that can severely debilitate it and reduce its sporulation.[8]
Elm phloem necrosis (elm yellows) is a disease of elm trees that is spread by leafhoppers or by root grafts.[9] This very aggressive disease, with no known cure, occurs in the Eastern United States and southern Ontario in Canada. It is caused by phytoplasmas which infect the phloem (inner bark) of the tree.[10] Infection and death of the phloem effectively girdles the tree and stops the flow of water and nutrients. The disease affects both wild-growing and cultivated trees.
Most serious of the elm pests is the elm leaf beetle Xanthogaleruca luteola, which can decimate foliage, although rarely with fatal results. The beetle was accidentally introduced to North America from Europe. Another unwelcome immigrant to North America is the Japanese beetle Popillia japonica. In both instances the beetles cause far more damage in North America owing to the absence of the predators present in their native lands. In Australia, introduced elm trees are sometimes used as foodplants by the larvae of hepialid moths of the genus Aenetus. These burrow horizontally into the trunk then vertically down.[11][12]
Sapsucker woodpeckers have a great love of young elm trees.
Efforts to develop resistant cultivars began in the Netherlands in 1928 and continued, uninterrupted by World War II, until 1992.[13] Similar programmes were initiated in North America (1937), Italy (1978), and Spain (1990s). Research has followed two paths:
In North America, careful selection has produced a number of trees resistant not only to disease, but also to the droughts and extremely cold winters afflicting the continent. Research in the USA has concentrated on the American Elm U. americana, resulting in the release of highly resistant clones, notably the cultivars 'Valley Forge' and 'Jefferson'.
Much work has also been done into the selection of disease-resistant Asiatic species and cultivars.[14][15]
In Europe, it is the unique example of the European White Elm Ulmus laevis which has received the most attention. Whilst this elm has little innate resistance to Dutch elm disease, it is not favoured by the vector bark beetles and thus only becomes colonized and infected when there are no other choices, a rare situation in western Europe. Research in Spain has suggested that it may be the presence of a triterpene, alnulin, which makes the tree bark unattractive to the beetle species that spread the disease.[16] However this possibility has not been conclusively proven.[17]
Owing to their innate resistance to Dutch elm disease, Asiatic species have been crossed with European species, or with other Asiatic elms, to produce trees which are both highly resistant to disease and tolerant of native climates. After a number of false dawns in the 1970s, this approach has produced a range of reliable hybrid cultivars now commercially available in North America and Europe.[18][19][20][21][22][23][24]
However, some of these cultivars, notably those with the Siberian Elm U. pumila in their ancestry, will probably have a comparatively small mature size and lack the forms for which the iconic American Elm and English Elm were prized. Moreover, several exported to northwestern Europe have proven unsuited to the maritime climate conditions there, notably because of their intolerance of anoxic conditions resulting from ponding on poorly drained soils in winter. Dutch hybridizations invariably included the Himalayan Elm U. wallichiana as a source of anti-fungal genes and have proven more tolerant of wet ground; they should also ultimately reach a greater size. A number of highly resistant Ulmus cultivars has been released since 2000, notably 'Morfeo'.[19]
Elms take many decades to grow to maturity, and as the introduction of these disease-resistant cultivars is relatively recent, their long-term performance and ultimate size and form cannot be predicted with certainty. The National Elm Trial in North America, begun in 2005, is a large-scale scientific effort to assess strengths and weaknesses of the leading cultivars over a ten-year period.
From the 18th century to the early 20th century, elms were among the most widely planted ornamental trees in both Europe and North America. They were particularly popular as a street tree in avenue plantings in towns and cities, creating high-tunnelled effects. Their tolerance of air-pollution and the comparatively rapid decomposition of their leaf-litter in the fall were further advantages. In North America, the species most commonly planted was the American elm (Ulmus americana), which had unique properties that made it ideal for such use: rapid growth, adaptation to a broad range of climates and soils, strong wood, resistance to wind damage, and vase-like growth habit requiring minimal pruning. In Europe, the wych elm (U. glabra) and the smooth-leaved elm (U. minor var. minor) were the most widely planted in the countryside, with the former in northern areas including Scandinavia and northern Britain), and the latter further south. The hybrid between these two, Dutch elm (U. × hollandica), occurs naturally and was also commonly planted. In much of England, it was the English elm (Ulmus procera) which later came to dominate the horticultural landscape. Most commonly planted in hedgerows, the English elm sometimes occurred in densities of over 1000 per square kilometre. In Australia, large numbers of English elms, as well as other species and cultivars, were planted as ornamentals following their introduction in the 19th century. From about 1850 to 1920, the most prized small ornamental elm in parks and gardens was the Camperdown elm (Ulmus glabra 'Camperdownii'), a contorted weeping cultivar of the Wych Elm grafted onto a non-weeping elm trunk to give a wide, spreading and weeping fountain shape in large garden spaces.
During the 18th and 19th centuries, elm cultivars enjoyed much popularity as ornamentals in Europe by virtue of their rapid growth and variety of foliage and forms.[25] This "belle époque" lasted until the First World War, when the consequences of hostilities, notably in Germany whence at least 40 cultivars originated, and the outbreak of Dutch elm disease saw the elm slide into horticultural decline. The devastation caused by the Second World War, and the demise in 1944 of the huge Späth nursery in Berlin, only accelerated the process. The outbreak of the new, three times more virulent, strain of Dutch elm disease Ophiostoma novo-ulmi in the late 1960s brought the tree to its nadir.
Since circa 1990 however, the elm has enjoyed a renaissance through the successful development in North America and Europe of cultivars highly resistant to the new disease.[1] Consequently, the total number of named cultivars, ancient and modern, now exceeds 300, although many of the older clones, possibly over 120, have been lost to cultivation. Unhappily, enthusiasm for the newer clones often remains low owing to the poor performance of earlier, supposedly disease-resistant Dutch trees released in the 1960s and 1970s. In the Netherlands, sales of elm cultivars slumped from over 56,000 in 1989 to just 6,800 in 2004,[26] whilst in the UK, only four of the new American and European releases were commercially available in 2008.
Elm wood was valued for its interlocking grain, and consequent resistance to splitting, with significant uses in wagon wheel hubs, chair seats and coffins. The elm's wood bends well and distorts easily making it quite pliant. The often long, straight, trunks were favoured as a source of timber for keels in ship construction. Elm is also prized by bowyers; of the ancient bows found in Europe, a large portion of them are elm. During the Middle Ages elm was also used to make longbows if yew was unavailable.
The first written references to elm occur in the Linear B lists of military equipment at Knossos in the Mycenaean Period. Several of the chariots are of elm (« πτε-ρε-ϝα », pte-re-wa), and the lists twice mention wheels of elmwood.[28] Hesiod says that ploughs in Ancient Greece were also made partly of elm.[29] The Romans, and more recently the Italians, used to plant elms in vineyards as supports for vines. Lopped at three metres, the elms' quick growth, twiggy lateral branches, light shade and root-suckering made them ideal trees for this purpose. The lopped branches were used for fodder and firewood.[30] Horace in his Epodes characterizes the elm as "loving the vine" (amicta vitibus ulmo),[31] and the ancients spoke of the "marriage" between elm and vine.[32]
The density of elm wood varies between species, but averages around 560 kg per cubic metre.[33]
Elm wood is also resistant to decay when permanently wet, and hollowed trunks were widely used as water pipes during the medieval period in Europe. Elm was also used as piers in the construction of the original London Bridge. However this resistance to decay in water does not extend to ground contact.[33]
The mucilaginous inner bark of the Slippery Elm Ulmus rubra has long been used as a demulcent, and is still produced commercially for this purpose in the United States with approval for sale as a nutritional supplement by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.[34]
Elms also have a long history of cultivation for fodder, with the leafy branches cut to feed livestock. The practice continues today in the Himalaya, where it contributes to serious deforestation. [35]
As fossil fuel resources diminish, increasing attention is being paid to trees as sources of energy. In Italy, the Istituto per la Protezione delle Piante is (2012) in the process of releasing to commerce very fast growing elm cultivars, able to increase in height by > 2 m (6 ft) per annum.[19]
Elm bark, cut into strips and boiled, sustained much of the rural population of Norway during the great famine of 1812. The seeds are particularly nutritious, comprising 45% crude protein, and < 7% fibre by dry mass.[36]
Chinese elm Ulmus parvifolia is a popular choice for bonsai owing to its tolerance of severe pruning.
In 1997, a European Union elm project was initiated, its aim to coordinate the conservation of all the elm genetic resources of the member states and, among other things, to assess their resistance to Dutch elm disease. Accordingly, over 300 clones were selected and propagated for testing.[37][38][39]
Many elm (Ulmus) trees of various kinds have attained great size or otherwise become particularly noteworthy; among these are the following.
Most of North America's notable elms are Ulmus americana, a fast-growing and long-lived species capable of attaining great size in a few centuries, especially when open-grown.[6]
Many artists have admired elms for the ease and grace of their branching and foliage, and have painted them with sensitivity. Elms are a recurring element in the landscapes and studies of, for example, John Constable, Ferdinand Georg Waldmüller, Frederick Childe Hassam, Karel Klinkenberg,[69] and George Inness.
John Constable, 'The Cornfield' [1826] (Ulmus × hollandica [27])
Constable, 'Salisbury Cathedral from the Bishop's Garden' [1823 version] (Ulmus × hollandica [27])
Ferdinand Georg Waldmüller, 'Alte Ulmen im Prater' (:Old Elms in Prater) [1831]
Arthur Hughes, 'Home from Sea' [1862] (Ulmus procera [27])
Ford Madox Brown, 'Work' [1863] (Ulmus procera [27])
Frederick Childe Hassam, 'Champs Elysées, Paris' [1889] (Ulmus × hollandica, 'orme femelle' [27])
In Greek mythology the nymph Ptelea (Πτελέα, Elm) was one of the eight Hamadryads, nymphs of the forest and daughters of Oxylos and Hamadryas.[70]
The first reference in literature to elms occurs in the Iliad. When Eetion, father of Andromache, is killed by Achilles during the Trojan War, the Mountain Nymphs plant elms on his tomb («περὶ δὲ πτελέoι εφύτεψαν νύμφαι ὀρεστιάδες, κoῦραι Διὸς αἰγιόχoιo».[71] Also in the Iliad, when the River Scamander, indignant at the sight of so many corpses in his water, overflows and threatens to drown Achilles, the latter grasps a branch of a great elm in an attempt to save himself («ὁ δὲ πτελέην ἕλε χερσὶν εὐφυέα μεγάλην».[72]
The Nymphs also planted elms on the tomb in the Thracian Chersonese of “great-hearted Protesilaus’’ («μεγάθυμου Πρωτεσιλάου»), the first Greek to fall in the Trojan War. These elms grew to be the tallest in the known world; but when their topmost branches saw far off the ruins of Troy, they immediately withered, so great still was the bitterness of the hero buried below, who had been loved by Laodamia and slain by Hector.[73] [74] The story is the subject of a poem by Antiphilus of Byzantium (1st century A.D.) in the Palatine Anthology:
Elms occur often in Pastoral Poetry, where they symbolise the idyllic life, their shade being mentioned as a place of special coolness and peace. In the first Idyll of Theocritus, for example, the goat-herd invites the shepherd to sit “here beneath the elm” («δεῦρ’ ὑπὸ τὰν πτελέαν») and sing. Beside elms Theocritus places “the sacred water” («το ἱερὸν ὕδωρ») of the Springs of the Nymphs and the shrines to the nymphs.[76]
In German mythology, the first woman was fashioned from an elm.[77]
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