Significations et usages de Hanja

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Hanja
Korean name
Hangul	한자/한문한자
Hanja	漢字/韓文漢字
Revised Romanization	Hanja
McCune–Reischauer	Hancha

This article contains Korean text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Hangul or Hanja.

Chinese characters
Scripts
Precursors Oracle bone script Bronze script Seal script large small Clerical script Cursive script Regular script Semi-cursive script
Type styles
Imitation Song Ming Sans-serif
Properties
Strokes Stroke order Radicals Classification Section headers
Variants
Standards on character forms
Kangxi Dictionary form Xin Zixing Standard Form of National Characters List of Forms of Frequently Used Characters
Standards on grapheme usage
Graphemic variants Hanyu Tongyong Zi Hanyu Changyong Zi Tōyō kanji Jōyō kanji
Reforms
Chinese traditional simplified simplified, 2nd round debate Japanese old new Ryakuji Korean Yakja Singaporean jiăntǐzì biǎo
Sinoxenic usage
Kanji Hanja Hán tự
Homographs
Literary and colloquial readings
Derivatives
Kokuji Korean hanja Chữ Nôm Zetian characters Nü Shu Idu Kana (Man'yōgana) Bopomofo Sawndip Khitan large script Khitan small script Jurchen Tangut

Calligraphy

Arabic Chinese Georgian Indian Japanese Korean Kufic Nepalese Persian Sini Tibetan Western

Hanja is the Korean name for Chinese characters (hanzi).^[1] More specifically, it refers to those Chinese characters borrowed from Chinese and incorporated into the Korean language with Korean pronunciation. Hanja-mal or hanja-eo refers to words which can be written with hanja, and hanmun (한문, 漢文) refers to Classical Chinese writing, although "hanja" is sometimes used loosely to encompass these other concepts. Because hanja never underwent major reform, they are almost entirely identical to traditional Chinese and kyūjitai characters. Only a small number of hanja characters are modified or unique to Korean. By contrast, many of the Chinese characters currently in use in Japan (kanji) and Mainland China have been simplified, and contain fewer strokes than the corresponding hanja characters.

Although a phonetic Korean alphabet, now known as hangul, had been created by a team of scholars commissioned in the 1440s by King Sejong the Great, it did not come into widespread use until the late 19th and early 20th century.^[2] Thus, until that time it was necessary to be fluent in reading and writing hanja in order to be literate in Korean, as the vast majority of Korean literature and most other Korean documents were written in hanja. Today, hanja plays a different role. Scholars who wish to study Korean history must study hanja in order to read historical documents. For the general public, learning a certain number of hanja is very helpful in understanding words that are formed with them. Hanja are not used to write native Korean words, which are always rendered in hangul, and even words of Chinese origin — hanja-eo (한자어, 漢字語) — are written with the hangul alphabet most of the time.

  History

A major impetus for the introduction of Chinese characters into Korea was the spread of Buddhism. The major Chinese text that introduced hanja to Koreans, however, was not a religious text but the Chinese text, Cheonjamun (Thousand Character Classic).

Koreans had to learn Classical Chinese to be properly literate for the most part, but there were some systems developed to use simplified forms of Chinese characters that phonetically transcribe Korean, namely, hyangchal (향찰; 鄕札), gugyeol (구결; 口訣), and idu (이두; 吏讀).

One way of adapting hanja to write Korean in such systems (such as Gugyeol) was to represent native Korean grammatical particles and other words solely according to their pronunciation. For example, Gugyeol uses the characters 爲尼 to transcribe the Korean word "hăni", in modern Korean, that means "does, and so". However, in Chinese, the same characters are read as the expression "wéi ní," meaning "becoming a nun." This is a typical example of Gugyeol words where the radical (爲) is read in Korean for its meaning (hă — "to do") and the suffix 尼, ni (meaning 'nun'), used phonetically.

Hanja was the sole means of writing Korean until King Sejong the Great promoted the invention of hangul in the 15th century. However, even after the invention of hangul, most Korean scholars continued to write in hanmun.

It was not until the 20th century that hangul truly replaced hanja. Officially, hanja has not been used in North Korea since June 1949 (additionally, all texts are now written horizontally instead of vertically).^{[citation needed]} Additionally, many words borrowed from Chinese have been replaced in the North with native Korean words. However, there are a large number of Chinese-borrowed words in widespread usage in the North (although written in hangul), and hanja characters still appear in special contexts, such as recent North Korean dictionaries.^[3]

  Character formation

Each hanja is composed of one of 214 radicals plus in most cases one or more additional elements. The vast majority of hanja use the additional elements to indicate the sound of the character, but a few hanja are purely pictographic, and some were formed in other ways.

  Eumhun

To aid in understanding the meaning of a character, or to describe it orally to distinguish it from other characters with the same pronunciation, character dictionaries and school textbooks refer to each character with a combination of its sound and a word indicating its meaning. This dual meaning-sound reading of a character is called eumhun (음훈; 音訓; from 音 "sound" + 訓 "meaning," "teaching").

The word or words used to denote the meaning are often—though hardly always—words of native Korean (i.e., non-Chinese) origin, and are sometimes archaic words no longer commonly used.

  Education

Hanja are still taught in separate courses in South Korean high schools, apart from the normal Korean language curriculum. Formal hanja education begins in grade 7 (junior high school) and continues until graduation from senior high school in grade 12. A total of 1,800 hanja are taught: 900 for junior high, and 900 for senior high (starting in grade 10).^[4] Post-secondary hanja education continues in some liberal arts universities.^[5] The 1972 promulgation of basic hanja for educational purposes was altered on December 31, 2000, to replace 44 hanja with 44 others.^{[citation needed]} The choice of characters to eliminate and exclude caused heated debates prior to and after the 2000 promulgation.^{[citation needed]}

Though North Korea rapidly abandoned the general use of hanja soon after independence,^[6] the number of hanja actually taught in primary and secondary schools is greater than the 1,800 taught in South Korea.^[7] Kim Il-sung had earlier called for a gradual elimination of the use of hanja,^[8] but by the 1960s, he had reversed his stance; he was quoted as saying in 1966, "While we should use as few Sinitic terms as possible, students must be exposed to the necessary Chinese characters and taught how to write them."^[9] As a result, a Chinese-character textbook was designed for North Korean schools for use in grades 5-9, teaching 1,500 characters, with another 500 for high school students.^[10] College students are exposed to another 1,000, bringing the total to 3,000.^[11]

  Uses

Because many different hanja—and thus, many different words written using hanja—often share the same sounds, two distinct hanja words (hanjaeo) may be spelled identically in the phonetic hangul alphabet. Thus, hanja are often used to clarify meaning, either on their own without the equivalent hangul spelling, or in parentheses after the hangul spelling as a kind of gloss. Hanja are often also used as a form of shorthand in newspaper headlines, advertisements, and on signs, for example the banner at the funeral for the sailors lost in the sinking of ROKS Cheonan (PCC-772).^[12]

  Print media

In South Korea, hanja are used most frequently in academic literature, where they often appear without the equivalent hangul spelling.^{[citation needed]} Usually, only those words with a specialized or ambiguous meaning are printed in hanja.^{[citation needed]} In mass-circulation books and magazines, hanja are generally used rarely, and only to gloss words already spelled in hangul when the meaning is ambiguous.^{[citation needed]} Hanja are also often used in newspaper headlines as abbreviations or to eliminate the ambiguity typical of newspaper headlines in any language.^[13] In formal publications, personal names are also usually glossed in hanja in parentheses next to the hangul. In contrast, North Korea eliminated the use of hanja even in academic publications by 1949, a situation which has since remained unchanged.^[9] Hanja are often used for advertising or decorative purposes, and appear frequently in athletic events and cultural parades, dictionaries and atlases. For example, the hanja 辛 (sin or shin, meaning sour or hot) appears prominently on packages of Shin Ramyun noodles.

  Dictionaries

In modern Korean dictionaries, all entry words of Sino-Korean origin are printed in hangul and listed in hangul order, with the hanja given in parentheses immediately following the entry word.

This practice helps to eliminate ambiguity, and it also serves as a sort of shorthand etymology, since the meaning of the hanja and the fact that the word is composed of hanja often help to illustrate the word's origin.

As an example of how hanja can help to clear up ambiguity, many homophones are written in hangul as 수도 (sudo), including:

1. 修道 — spiritual discipline
2. 受渡 — receipt and delivery
3. 囚徒 — prisoner
4. 水都 — 'city of water' (e.g. Venice or Hong Kong)
5. 水稻 — rice
6. 水道 — drain
7. 隧道 — tunnel
8. 水道 — rivers, path of surface water
9. 首都 — capital (city)
10. 手刀 — hand-knife

Hanja dictionaries (Jajeon (자전, 字典) or Okpyeon (옥편, 玉篇)) are organized by radicals, and kanji (Japanese, 漢字).

  Personal names

Korean personal names are generally based on hanja, although some exceptions exist. On business cards, the use of hanja is slowly fading away, with most older people displaying their names in hanja while most of the younger generation utilizes hangul. Korean personal names usually consist of a one-character family name (seong, 성, 姓) followed by a two-character given name (ireum, 이름). There are a few 2-character family names (e.g. 남궁, 南宮, Namgung), and the holders of such names — but not only them — tend to have one-syllable given names. Traditionally, the given name in turn consists of one character unique to the individual and one character shared by all people in a family of the same sex and generation (see Generation name). Things have changed, however, and while these rules are still largely followed, some people have given names that are native Korean words (popular ones include haneul — meaning "sky" — and iseul — meaning "morning dew"). Nevertheless, on official documents, people's names are still recorded in both hangul and in hanja (if the name is composed of hanja).

  Toponymy

Due to standardization efforts during Goryeo and Joseon eras, native Korean placenames were converted to hanja, and most names used today are hanja-based. The most notable exception is the name of the capital, Seoul – although^{[clarification needed]} Seoul is the English pronunciation of 서울 (Seo-Ul) which literally means 'Capital'. Disyllabic names of railway lines, freeways, and provinces are often formed by taking one character from each of the two locales' names. For Seoul, the abbreviation is the hanja gyeong (경, 京, "capital"). Thus,

• The Gyeongbu (경부, 京釜) corridor connects Seoul (gyeong) with Busan (bu);
• The Gyeongin (경인, 京仁) corridor connects Seoul with Incheon (in);
• The former Jeolla (전라, 全羅) Province took its name from the first characters in the city names Jeonju (전주, 全州) and Naju (나주, 羅州) ("Naju" is originally "Raju," but the initial "r/l" sound in South Korean is simplified to "n").

Most atlases of Korea today are published in two versions: one in hangul (sometimes with some English as well), and one in hanja. Subway and railway station signs give the station's name in hangul, hanja, and English, both to assist visitors and to disambiguate the name.

  Usage

  This Korean War propaganda leaflet created by the US Army as part of Operation Moolah uses hangul–hanja mixed script.

Opinion surveys in South Korea regarding the issue of hanja use have had mixed responses in the past. Hanja terms are also expressed through hangul, the standard script in the Korean language. Hanja use within general Korean literature has declined significantly since the 1980s, a situation attributed to the fact that formal hanja education in South Korea does not begin until the seventh year of schooling to due changes in government policy during the time. In 1956, one study found mixed-script Korean text (in which Sino-Korean nouns are written using hanja, and other words using hangul) were read faster than texts written purely in hangul; however, by 1977, the situation had reversed.^[14] In 1988, 80% of one sample of people without a college education "evinced no reading comprehension of any but the simplest, most common hanja" when reading mixed-script passages.^[15]

  Korean hanja

A small number of characters were invented by Koreans themselves. Most of them are for proper names (place-names and people's names) but some refer to Korean-specific concepts and materials. They include 畓 (논 답; non dap; "paddyfield"), 乭 (Dol, a character only used in given names), 㸴 (So, a rare surname from Seongju), and 怾 (Gi, an old name of the Kumgangsan).

Further examples include 媤 (시 si), 曺 (조 jo), 㕦/夻 (화 hwa), 巭 (부 bu), 娚 (남 nam), 頉 (탈 tal), 䭏 (편 pyeon), and 哛 (뿐 ppun).

Compare to the parallel development in Japan of kokuji (国字^?), of which there are hundreds, many rarely used – these were often developed for native Japanese plants and animals.

  Yakja

  Yakja (약자, 略字) simplification of 無

Some hanja characters have simplified forms (약자, 略字, yakja) that can be seen in casual use. An example is , which is a cursive form of 無 (meaning "nothing").

  Pronunciation

Each hanja character is pronounced as a single syllable, corresponding to a single composite character in hangul. The pronunciation of hanja in Korean is not identical to the way they are pronounced in modern Chinese, particularly Mandarin, although some Chinese dialects and Korean share similar pronunciations for some characters. For example, 印刷 "print" is yìnshuā in Mandarin Chinese and inswae (인쇄) in Korean, but it is pronounced insue in Shanghainese (a Wu Chinese dialect). One obvious difference is the complete loss^{[dubious – discuss]} of tone from Korean while all Chinese dialects retain tone. In other aspects, the pronunciation of hanja is more conservative than most northern and central Chinese dialects, for example in the retention of labial consonant codas in characters with labial consonant onsets, such as the characters 法 (법 beop) and 凡 (범 beom); the labial codas existed in Middle Chinese but do not survive intact in most northern and central Chinese varieties today.

Due to divergence in pronunciation since the time of borrowing, sometimes the pronunciation of a hanja and its corresponding hanzi may differ considerably. For example, 女 ("woman") is nǚ in Mandarin Chinese and nyeo (녀) in Korean. However, in most modern Korean dialects (especially South Korean ones), 女 is pronounced as yeo (여) when used in an initial position, due to a systematic elision of initial n's when followed by y or i.

Additionally, sometimes a hanja-derived word will have altered pronunciation of a character to reflect Korean pronunciation shifts, for example mogwa 모과 木瓜 "quince" from mokgwa 목과, and moran 모란 牡丹 "Paeonia suffruticosa" from mokdan 목단.

  See also

• Basic hanja for educational use
• List of Korea-related topics
• Sino-Korean vocabulary
• Chinese character
• Korean mixed script
• Kanji (Japanese equivalent)
• Hantu (Vietnamese equivalent)

  References

  Notes

  Sources

• Brown, R.A. (1990). "Korean Sociolinguistic Attitudes in Japanese Comparative Perspective". Journal of Asia Pacific Communication 1: 117–134. 
• DeFrancis, John (1990). The Chinese Language: Fact and Fantasy. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-1068-6. 
• Hannas, William. C. (1997). Asia's Orthographic Dilemma. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-1892-X (paperback); ISBN 0-8248-1842-3 (hardcover). 
• Hannas, William. C. (2003). The Writing on the Wall: How Asian Orthography Curbs Creativity. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0-8122-3711-0. 
• Taylor, Insup; Taylor, M. Martin (1983). The psychology of reading. New York: Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-684080-6. 

  External links

• open okpyŏn (open-source hanja dictionary)
• Hanja Hangul Convert Project
• Hanja (Chinese characters)
• Hanja Dictionary for learners of Korean
• One out of Five Korean Students Couldn't Write Their Own Names (in hanja)