Significations et usages de bit

Bite
Classification and external resources
Military working dog training to attack by biting.
ICD-10	T14.1
ICD-9	E906.5
MeSH	D001733

A bite is a wound received from the mouth (and in particular, the teeth) of an animal, including humans. Animals may bite in self-defense, in an attempt to predate food, as well as part of normal interactions. Other bite attacks may be apparently unprovoked. Self inflicted bites occur in some genetic illnesses such as Lesch-Nyhan syndrome. Biting is an act that occurs when an animal uses its teeth to pierce another object, including food, flesh and inanimate matter. A person bitten by an animal potentially carrying parvovirus or rabies virus should consult a medical doctor immediately. A bite victim may also incur serious bacterial infections of the bone called osteomyelitis which can become life threatening if untreated, whether or not the animal has parvovirus or rabies virus.

  Classification

  A mosquito bite

Bites are usually classified by the type of creature causing the wound. Many different creatures are known to bite humans.

  Arthropods

• Spider bite
• Insect bites and stings
  • Flea bites are responsible for the transmission of bubonic plague.
  • Mosquito bites are responsible for the transmission of dengue fever and malaria.

  Vertebrates other than humans

• Bites from dogs are commonplace, with children the most common victims and the face the most common target.^[1] About 4.7 million dog bites are reported annually in the United States.^[2]
• Other companion animals, including cats, ferrets, and parrots, may bite humans.
• Wildlife may sometimes bite humans. The bites of various mammals such as bats, rabbits, wolves, raccoons, etc. may transmit rabies, which is almost always fatal if left untreated.^{[citation needed]}

Involuntary biting injuries due to closed-fist injuries from fists striking teeth (referred to as reverse bite injuries) are a common consequence of fist fights. These have been termed "fight bites". Injuries in which the knuckle joints or tendons of the hand are bitten into tend to be the most serious.

In spite of their name, love bites are not biting injuries (they involve bruising from sucking, and the skin is not broken), although actual biting injuries are sometimes seen as the result of fetishistic activities.

  Other

• Snakebite
• Leech bite

  Signs and symptoms

Bite wounds raise a number of medical concerns for the physician or first aider including:

• Generalized tissue damage due to tearing and scratching.
• Serious hemorrhage if major blood vessels are pierced.
• Infection by bacteria or other pathogens, including rabies.
• Introduction of venom into the wound by venomous animals such as some snakes.
• Introduction of other irritants into the wound, causing inflammation and itching.

  Treatment

Bite wounds should be cleaned and debrided as necessary but not closed. Ampicillin/sulbactam is indicated as HACEK endocarditis, specifically Eikenella, is the most worrying complication. A punctate wound over a joint surface should be regarded as an open joint injury until proven otherwise.

  Treatment

Bite wounds are washed, ideally with povidone-iodine soap and water. The injury is then loosely bandaged, but is not sutured due to risk of infection.

  Antibiotics

Antibiotics prophylaxis is recommended for dog and cat bites of the hand^[3] and human bites if they are more than superficial.^[4] Evidence for the need for antibiotic prophylaxis for bites in other areas inconclusive.^[5]

For empirical therapy, the first choice is amoxicillin with clavulanic acid, and if the person is penicillin allergy doxycycline and metronidazole.^[4] The anti-staphylococcal penicillins (e.g., cloxacillin, nafcillin, flucloxacillin) and the macrolides (e.g., erythromycin, clarithromycin) are not used for empirical therapy, because they do not cover Pasteurella species.^[4]

  Rabies

Animal bites inflicted by some animals, including carnivorans and bats can transmit rabies. The animal is caught alive or dead with its head preserved, so the head can later be analyzed to detect the disease. Signs of rabies include foaming at the mouth, self-mutilation, growling, jerky behavior, and red eyes.

If the animal cannot be captured, prophylactic rabies treatment is recommended in most places. Certain places, such as Hawaii, Australia and the United Kingdom, are known not to have native rabies. Treatment is generally available in North America and the Northern European states.

  Tetanus

Tetanus toxoid is indicated for virtually any bite that punctures the epidermis and tetanus immune globulin is indicated in patients with more than 10 years since prior vaccination. Tetanus boosters (Td) should be given every ten years.

TT = Tetanus Toxoid; TIG: Tetanus Immune globulin

  Mosquito bites

Antihistamines are effective treatment for the symptoms from bites.^[6] Many diseases such as malaria are transmitted by mosquitoes.

  See also

• Bite force quotient
• Wilderness first aid

  References

  External links

• Treating human bites
• Human bite wounds - Orthopaedia.com

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A bit (a contraction of binary digit) is the basic capacity of information in computing and telecommunications; a bit represents either 1 or 0 (one or zero) only. The representation may be implemented, in a variety of systems, by means of a two state device.

In computing, a bit can be defined as a variable or computed quantity that can have only two possible values. These two values are often interpreted as binary digits and are usually denoted by the numerical digits 0 and 1. The two values can also be interpreted as logical values (true/false, yes/no), algebraic signs (+/−), activation states (on/off), or any other two-valued attribute. The correspondence between these values and the physical states of the underlying storage or device is a matter of convention, and different assignments may be used even within the same device or program. The length of a binary number may be referred to as its "bit-length."

In information theory, one bit is typically defined as the uncertainty of a binary random variable that is 0 or 1 with equal probability,^[1] or the information that is gained when the value of such a variable becomes known.^[2]

In quantum computing, a quantum bit or qubit is a quantum system that can exist in superposition of two bit values, "true" and "false".

The symbol for bit, as a unit of information, is either simply "bit" (recommended by the ISO/IEC standard 80000-13 (2008)) or lowercase "b" (recommended by the IEEE 1541 Standard (2002)).

  History

The encoding of data by discrete bits was used in the punched cards invented by Basile Bouchon and Jean-Baptiste Falcon (1732), developed by Joseph Marie Jacquard (1804), and later adopted by Semen Korsakov, Charles Babbage, Hermann Hollerith, and early computer manufacturers like IBM. Another variant of that idea was the perforated paper tape. In all those systems, the medium (card or tape) conceptually carried an array of hole positions; each position could be either punched through or not, thus carrying one bit of information. The encoding of text by bits was also used in Morse code (1844) and early digital communications machines such as teletypes and stock ticker machines (1870).

Ralph Hartley suggested the use of a logarithmic measure of information in 1928.^[3] Claude E. Shannon first used the word bit in his seminal 1948 paper A Mathematical Theory of Communication. He attributed its origin to John W. Tukey, who had written a Bell Labs memo on 9 January 1947 in which he contracted "binary digit" to simply "bit". Interestingly, Vannevar Bush had written in 1936 of "bits of information" that could be stored on the punched cards used in the mechanical computers of that time.^[4] The first programmable computer built by Konrad Zuse used binary notation for numbers.

  Representation

A bit can be stored by a digital device or other physical system that exists in either of two possible distinct states. These may be the two stable states of a flip-flop, two positions of an electrical switch, two distinct voltage or current levels allowed by a circuit, two distinct levels of light intensity, two directions of magnetization or polarization, the orientation of reversible double stranded DNA, etc.

Bits can be implemented in many forms. In most modern computing devices, a bit is usually represented by an electrical voltage or current pulse, or by the electrical state of a flip-flop circuit.

For devices using positive logic, a digit value of 1 (or a logical value of true) is represented by a more positive voltage relative to the representation of 0. The specific voltages are different for different logic families and variations are permitted to allow for component aging and noise immunity. For example, in transistor–transistor logic (TTL) and compatible circuits, digit values 0 and 1 at the output of a device are represented by no higher than 0.4 volts and no lower than 2.6 volts, respectively; while TTL inputs are specified to recognize 0.8 volts or below as 0 and 2.2 volts or above as 1.

  Transmission and processing

Bits are transmitted one at a time in serial transmission, and multple numbers of bits in parallel transmission. A bitwise operation optionally process bits one at a time, see below Bit-based_computing.

  Storage

In the earliest non-electronic information processing devices, such as Jacquard's loom or Babbage's Analytical Engine, a bit was often stored as the position of a mechanical lever or gear, or the presence or absence of a hole at a specific point of a paper card or tape. The first electrical devices for discrete logic (such as elevator and traffic light control circuits, telephone switches, and Konrad Zuse's computer) represented bits as the states of electrical relays which could be either "open" or "closed". When relays were replaced by vacuum tubes, starting in the 1940s, computer builders experimented with a variety of storage methods, such as pressure pulses traveling down a mercury delay line, charges stored on the inside surface of a cathode-ray tube, or opaque spots printed on glass discs by photolithographic techniques.

In the 1950s and 1960s, these methods were largely supplanted by magnetic storage devices such as magnetic core memory, magnetic tapes, drums, and disks, where a bit was represented by the polarity of magnetization of a certain area of a ferromagnetic film, or by a change in polarity from one direction to the other. The same principle was later used in the magnetic bubble memory developed in the 1980s, and is still found in various magnetic strip items such as metro tickets and some credit cards.

In modern semiconductor memory, such as dynamic random access memory or flash memory, the two values of a bit may be represented by two levels of electric charge stored in a capacitor. In programmable logic arrays and certain types of read-only memory, a bit may be represented by the presence or absence of a conducting path at a certain point of a circuit. In optical discs, a bit is encoded as the presence or absence of a microscopic pit on a reflective surface. In one-dimensional bar codes, bits are encoded as the thickness of alternating black and white lines.

  Information capacity and information compression

When the information capacity of a storage system or a communication channel is presented in bits or bits per second, this often refers to binary digits, which is a computer hardware capacity to store binary code (0 or 1, up or down, current or not, etc.). Information capacity of a storage system is only an upper bound to the actual quantity of information stored therein. If the two possible values of one bit of storage are not equally likely, that bit of storage will contain less than one bit of information. Indeed, if the value is completely predictable, then the reading of that value will provide no information at all (zero entropic bits, because no resolution of uncertainty and therefore no information). If a computer file that uses n bits of storage contains only m < n bits of information, then that information can in principle be encoded in about m bits, at least on the average. This principle is the basis of data compression technology. Using an analogy, the hardware binary digits refer to the amount of storage space available (like the number of buckets available to store things), and the information content the filling, which comes in different levels of granularity (fine or coarse, that is, compressed or uncompressed information). When the granularity is finer (when information is more compressed), the same bucket can hold more.

For example, it is estimated that the combined technological capacity of the world to store information provides 1,300 exabytes of hardware digits in 2007. However, when this storage space is filled and the corresponding content is optimally compressed, this only represents 295 exabytes of information.^[5] When optimally compressed, the resulting carrying capacity approaches Shannon information or information entropy.

  Multiple bits

There are several units of information which are defined as multiples of bits, like octet (8 bits, widely named byte, even if historically a byte has had different sizes depending on hardware) or kilobit (either 1000 or 2¹⁰ = 1024 bits).

Computers usually manipulate bits in groups of a fixed size, conventionally named "words". The number of bits in a word varies with the computer model; typically between 8 to 80 bits; or even more in some specialized machines. Today personal or server computers have a word size of 64 or 32 bits.

The International Electrotechnical Commission's standard IEC 60027 specifies that the symbol for binary digit should be "bit", and this should be used in all multiples, such as "kbit" (for kilobit).^[6] However, the letter "b" (in lower case) is widely used too. The letter "B" (upper case) is both the standard and customary symbol for byte.

In telecommunications (including computer networks), data transfer rates are usually measured in bits per second (bit/s) or its multiples, such as kbit/s. (This unit is not to be confused with baud.)

A millibit is a (rare) unit of information equal to one thousandth of a bit.^[7]

  Bit-based computing

Certain bitwise computer processor instructions (such as bit set) operate at the level of manipulating bits rather than manipulating data interpreted as an aggregate of bits.

In the 1980s, when bitmapped computer displays became popular, some computers provided specialized bit block transfer ("bitblt" or "blit") instructions to set or copy the bits that corresponded to a given rectangular area on the screen.

In most computers and programming languages, when a bit within a group of bits such as a byte or word is to be referred to, it is usually specified by a number from 0 (not 1) upwards corresponding to its position within the byte or word. However, 0 can refer to either the most significant bit or to the least significant bit depending on the context, so the convention of use must be known.

  Other information units

Other units of information, sometimes used in information theory, include the natural digit also called a nat or nit and defined as log₂ e (≈ 1.443) bits, where e is the base of the natural logarithms; and the dit, ban, or hartley, defined as log₂ 10 (≈ 3.322) bits.^[3] Conversely, one bit of information corresponds to about ln 2 (≈ 0.693) nats, or log₁₀ 2 (≈ 0.301) hartleys. Some authors also define a binit as an arbitrary information unit equivalent to some fixed but unspecified number of bits.^[8]

  See also

• Byte
• Integer (computer science)
• Primitive data type
• Bitstream
• Entropy (information theory)
• Binary numeral system
• Ternary numeral system
• Bit (Tron character)

  References

  External links

• Bit Calculator - Convert between bit, byte, kilobit, kilobyte, megabit, megabyte, gigabit, gigabyte