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allemand anglais arabe bulgare chinois coréen croate danois espagnol espéranto estonien finnois français grec hébreu hindi hongrois islandais indonésien italien japonais letton lituanien malgache néerlandais norvégien persan polonais portugais roumain russe serbe slovaque slovène suédois tchèque thai turc vietnamien

Significations et usages de wound

wound

  • past participle of wind (verb)
  • past indicative (I,you,he,she,it,we,they) of wind (verb)

Définition

wound (adj.)

1.put in a coil

wound (n.)

1.the act of inflicting a wound

2.a casualty to military personnel resulting from combat

3.a figurative injury (to your feelings or pride)"he feared that mentioning it might reopen the wound" "deep in her breast lives the silent wound" "The right reader of a good poem can tell the moment it strikes him that he has taken an immortal wou..."

4.an injury to living tissue (especially an injury involving a cut or break in the skin)

5.an open skin infection

wound (v. trans.)

1.cause injuries or bodily harm to

2.hurt the feelings of"She hurt me when she did not include me among her guests" "This remark really bruised my ego"

wound (v.)

1.cause damage or affect negatively"Our business was hurt by the new competition"

wind (n.)

1.the act of winding or twisting"he put the key in the old clock and gave it a good wind"

2.breath"the collision knocked the wind out of him"

3.a musical instrument in which the sound is produced by an enclosed column of air that is moved by the breath

4.an indication of potential opportunity"he got a tip on the stock market" "a good lead for a job"

5.empty rhetoric or insincere or exaggerated talk"that's a lot of wind" "don't give me any of that jazz"

6.a tendency or force that influences events"the winds of change"

7.air moving (sometimes with considerable force) from an area of high pressure to an area of low pressure"trees bent under the fierce winds" "when there is no wind, row" "the radioactivity was being swept upwards by the air current and out into the..."

8.a state of excessive gas in the alimentary canal

9.(British)a reflex that expels intestinal gas through the anus

wind (v.)

1.raise or haul up with or as if with mechanical help"hoist the bicycle onto the roof of the car"

2.form into a wreath

3.coil the spring of (some mechanical device) by turning a stem"wind your watch"

4.arrange or or coil around"roll your hair around your finger" "Twine the thread around the spool" "She wrapped her arms around the child"

5.to move or cause to move in a sinuous, spiral, or circular course"the river winds through the hills" "the path meanders through the vineyards" "sometimes, the gout wanders through the entire body"

6.catch the scent of; get wind of"The dog nosed out the drugs"

7.extend in curves and turns"The road winds around the lake" "the path twisted through the forest"

8.play or sound a wind instrument"She blew the horn"

9.wind around something in coils or loops

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Merriam Webster

WoundWound (?), imp. & p. p. of Wind to twist, and Wind to sound by blowing.

WoundWound (?; 277), n. [OE. wounde, wunde, AS. wund; akin to OFries. wunde, OS. wunda, D. wonde, OHG. wunta, G. wunde, Icel. und, and to AS., OS., & G. wund sore, wounded, OHG. wunt, Goth. wunds, and perhaps also to Goth. winnan to suffer, E. win. √140. Cf. Zounds.]


1. A hurt or injury caused by violence; specifically, a breach of the skin and flesh of an animal, or in the substance of any creature or living thing; a cut, stab, rent, or the like. Chaucer.

Showers of blood
Rained from the wounds of slaughtered Englishmen.
Shak.

2. Fig.: An injury, hurt, damage, detriment, or the like, to feeling, faculty, reputation, etc.

3. (Criminal Law) An injury to the person by which the skin is divided, or its continuity broken; a lesion of the body, involving some solution of continuity.

☞ Walker condemns the pronunciation woond as a “capricious novelty.” It is certainly opposed to an important principle of our language, namely, that the Old English long sound written ou, and pronounced like French ou or modern English oo, has regularly changed, when accented, into the diphthongal sound usually written with the same letters ou in modern English, as in ground, hound, round, sound. The use of ou in Old English to represent the sound of modern English oo was borrowed from the French, and replaced the older and Anglo-Saxon spelling with u. It makes no difference whether the word was taken from the French or not, provided it is old enough in English to have suffered this change to what is now the common sound of ou; but words taken from the French at a later time, or influenced by French, may have the French sound.

Wound gall (Zoöl.), an elongated swollen or tuberous gall on the branches of the grapevine, caused by a small reddish brown weevil (Ampeloglypter sesostris) whose larvæ inhabit the galls.

WoundWound (?), v. t. [imp. & p. p. Wounded; p. pr. & vb. n. Wounding.] [AS. wundian. √140. See Wound, n.]


1. To hurt by violence; to produce a breach, or separation of parts, in, as by a cut, stab, blow, or the like.

The archers hit him; and he was sore wounded of the archers. 1 Sam. xxxi. 3.

2. To hurt the feelings of; to pain by disrespect, ingratitude, or the like; to cause injury to.

When ye sin so against the brethren, and wound their weak conscience, ye sin against Christ. 1 Cor. viii. 12.

WindWind (?), v. t. [imp. & p. p. Wound (wound) (rarely Winded); p. pr. & vb. n. Winding.] [OE. winden, AS. windan; akin to OS. windan, D. & G. winden, OHG. wintan, Icel. & Sw. vinda, Dan. vinde, Goth. windan (in comp.). Cf. Wander, Wend.]


1. To turn completely, or with repeated turns; especially, to turn about something fixed; to cause to form convolutions about anything; to coil; to twine; to twist; to wreathe; as, to wind thread on a spool or into a ball.

Whether to wind
The woodbine round this arbor.
Milton.

2. To entwist; to infold; to encircle.

Sleep, and I will wind thee in arms. Shak.

3. To have complete control over; to turn and bend at one's pleasure; to vary or alter or will; to regulate; to govern. “To turn and wind a fiery Pegasus.” Shak.

In his terms so he would him wind. Chaucer.

Gifts blind the wise, and bribes do please
And wind all other witnesses.
Herrick.

Were our legislature vested in the prince, he might wind and turn our constitution at his pleasure. Addison.

4. To introduce by insinuation; to insinuate.

You have contrived . . . to wind
Yourself into a power tyrannical.
Shak.

Little arts and dexterities they have to wind in such things into discourse. Gov. of Tongue.

5. To cover or surround with something coiled about; as, to wind a rope with twine.

To wind off, to unwind; to uncoil. -- To wind out, to extricate. [Obs.] Clarendon. -- To wind up. (a) To coil into a ball or small compass, as a skein of thread; to coil completely. (b) To bring to a conclusion or settlement; as, to wind up one's affairs; to wind up an argument. (c) To put in a state of renewed or continued motion, as a clock, a watch, etc., by winding the spring, or that which carries the weight; hence, to prepare for continued movement or action; to put in order anew. “Fate seemed to wind him up for fourscore years.” Dryden. “Thus they wound up his temper to a pitch.” Atterbury. (d) To tighten (the strings) of a musical instrument, so as to tune it.Wind up the slackened strings of thy lute.” Waller.

WindWind (?), v. i.
1. To turn completely or repeatedly; to become coiled about anything; to assume a convolved or spiral form; as, vines wind round a pole.

So swift your judgments turn and wind. Dryden.

2. To have a circular course or direction; to crook; to bend; to meander; as, to wind in and out among trees.

And where the valley winded out below,
The murmuring main was heard, and scarcely heard, to flow.
Thomson.

He therefore turned him to the steep and rocky path which . . . winded through the thickets of wild boxwood and other low aromatic shrubs. Sir W. Scott.

3. To go to the one side or the other; to move this way and that; to double on one's course; as, a hare pursued turns and winds.

The lowing herd wind �lowly o'er the lea. Gray.

To wind out, to extricate one's self; to escape.
Long struggling underneath are they could wind
Out of such prison.
Milton.

WindWind (?), n. The act of winding or turning; a turn; a bend; a twist; a winding.

WindWind (wĭnd, in poetry and singing often wīnd; 277), n. [AS. wind; akin to OS., OFries., D., & G. wind, OHG. wint, Dan. & Sw. vind, Icel. vindr, Goth winds, W. gwynt, L. ventus, Skr. vāta (cf. Gr. 'ah`ths a blast, gale, 'ah^nai to breathe hard, to blow, as the wind); originally a p. pr. from the verb seen in Skr. to blow, akin to AS. wāwan, D. waaijen, G. wehen, OHG. wāen, wājen, Goth. waian. √131. Cf. Air, Ventail, Ventilate, Window, Winnow.]


1. Air naturally in motion with any degree of velocity; a current of air.

Except wind stands as never it stood,
It is an ill wind that turns none to good.
Tusser.

Winds were soft, and woods were green. Longfellow.

2. Air artificially put in motion by any force or action; as, the wind of a cannon ball; the wind of a bellows.

3. Breath modulated by the respiratory and vocal organs, or by an instrument.

Their instruments were various in their kind,
Some for the bow, and some for breathing wind.
Dryden.

4. Power of respiration; breath.

If my wind were but long enough to say my prayers, I would repent. Shak.

5. Air or gas generated in the stomach or bowels; flatulence; as, to be troubled with wind.

6. Air impregnated with an odor or scent.

A pack of dogfish had him in the wind. Swift.

7. A direction from which the wind may blow; a point of the compass; especially, one of the cardinal points, which are often called the four winds.

Come from the four winds, O breath, and breathe upon these slain. Ezek. xxxvii. 9.

☞ This sense seems to have had its origin in the East. The Hebrews gave to each of the four cardinal points the name of wind.

8. (Far.) A disease of sheep, in which the intestines are distended with air, or rather affected with a violent inflammation. It occurs immediately after shearing.

9. Mere breath or talk; empty effort; idle words.

Nor think thou with wind
Of airy threats to awe.
Milton.

10. (Zoöl.) The dotterel. [Prov. Eng.]

11. (Boxing) The region of the pit of the stomach, where a blow may paralyze the diaphragm and cause temporary loss of breath or other injury; the mark. [Slang or Cant]

Wind is often used adjectively, or as the first part of compound words.

All in the wind. (Naut.) See under All, n. -- Before the wind. (Naut.) See under Before. -- Between wind and water (Naut.), in that part of a ship's side or bottom which is frequently brought above water by the rolling of the ship, or fluctuation of the water's surface. Hence, colloquially, (as an injury to that part of a vessel, in an engagement, is particularly dangerous) the vulnerable part or point of anything. -- Cardinal winds. See under Cardinal, a. -- Down the wind. (a) In the direction of, and moving with, the wind; as, birds fly swiftly down the wind. (b) Decaying; declining; in a state of decay. [Obs.] “He went down the wind still.” L'Estrange. -- In the wind's eye (Naut.), directly toward the point from which the wind blows. -- Three sheets in the wind, unsteady from drink. [Sailors' Slang] -- To be in the wind, to be suggested or expected; to be a matter of suspicion or surmise. [Colloq.] -- To carry the wind (Man.), to toss the nose as high as the ears, as a horse. -- To raise the wind, to procure money. [Colloq.] -- To take the wind or To have the wind, to gain or have the advantage. Bacon. -- To take the wind out of one's sails, to cause one to stop, or lose way, as when a vessel intercepts the wind of another; to cause one to lose enthusiasm, or momentum in an activity. [Colloq.] -- To take wind, or To get wind, to be divulged; to become public; as, the story got wind, or took wind. -- Wind band (Mus.), a band of wind instruments; a military band; the wind instruments of an orchestra. -- Wind chest (Mus.), a chest or reservoir of wind in an organ. -- Wind dropsy. (Med.) (a) Tympanites. (b) Emphysema of the subcutaneous areolar tissue. -- Wind egg, an imperfect, unimpregnated, or addled egg. -- Wind furnace. See the Note under Furnace. -- Wind gauge. See under Gauge. -- Wind gun. Same as Air gun. -- Wind hatch (Mining), the opening or place where the ore is taken out of the earth. -- Wind instrument (Mus.), an instrument of music sounded by means of wind, especially by means of the breath, as a flute, a clarinet, etc. -- Wind pump, a pump moved by a windmill. -- Wind rose, a table of the points of the compass, giving the states of the barometer, etc., connected with winds from the different directions. -- Wind sail. (a) (Naut.) A wide tube or funnel of canvas, used to convey a stream of air for ventilation into the lower compartments of a vessel. (b) The sail or vane of a windmill. -- Wind shake, a crack or incoherence in timber produced by violent winds while the timber was growing. -- Wind shock, a wind shake. -- Wind side, the side next the wind; the windward side. [R.] Mrs. Browning. -- Wind rush (Zoöl.), the redwing. [Prov. Eng.] -- Wind wheel, a motor consisting of a wheel moved by wind. -- Wood wind (Mus.), the flutes and reed instruments of an orchestra, collectively.

WindWind (?), v. t. [imp. & p. p. Winded; p. pr. & vb. n. Winding.]


1. To expose to the wind; to winnow; to ventilate.

2. To perceive or follow by the scent; to scent; to nose; as, the hounds winded the game.

3. (a) To drive hard, or force to violent exertion, as a horse, so as to render scant of wind; to put out of breath. (b) To rest, as a horse, in order to allow the breath to be recovered; to breathe.

To wind a ship (Naut.), to turn it end for end, so that the wind strikes it on the opposite side.

WindWind (?), v. t. [From Wind, moving air, but confused in sense and in conjugation with wind to turn.] [imp. & p. p. Wound (wound), R. Winded; p. pr. & vb. n. Winding.] To blow; to sound by blowing; esp., to sound with prolonged and mutually involved notes. “Hunters who wound their horns.” Pennant.

Ye vigorous swains, while youth ferments your blood, . . .
Wind the shrill horn.
Pope.

That blast was winded by the king. Sir W. Scott.

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Définition (complément)

⇨ voir la définition de Wikipedia

Synonymes

Voir aussi

Locutions

Abnormal findings in wound secretion • Abscess wound postprocedural • Dehiscence of operation wound • Dehiscence, Surgical Wound • Disruption of operation wound, not elsewhere classified • Disruption of wound of episiotomy • Disruption of wound of perineal laceration • Gunshot wound • Haematoma of obstetric wound • Infection, Postoperative Wound • Infection, Surgical Wound • Infection, Wound • Negative-Pressure Wound Therapy • Open wound NOS • Open wound involving larynx and trachea • Open wound involving pharynx and cervical oesophagus • Open wound involving thyroid gland • Open wound of abdomen, lower back and pelvis • Open wound of abdominal wall • Open wound of ankle • Open wound of ankle and foot • Open wound of back wall of thorax • Open wound of breast • Open wound of cheek and temporomandibular area • Open wound of ear • Open wound of elbow • Open wound of eyelid and periocular area • Open wound of eyelid and periocular area with or without involvement of lacrimal passage • Open wound of finger(s) NOS • Open wound of finger(s) with damage to nail • Open wound of finger(s) without damage to nail • Open wound of foot NOS • Open wound of forearm • Open wound of forearm, part unspecified • Open wound of front wall of thorax • Open wound of head • Open wound of head, part unspecified • Open wound of hip • Open wound of hip and thigh • Open wound of knee • Open wound of lip and oral cavity • Open wound of lower back and pelvis • Open wound of lower leg • Open wound of lower leg, part unspecified • Open wound of lower limb, level unspecified • Open wound of neck • Open wound of neck, part unspecified • Open wound of nose • Open wound of other and unspecified external genital organs • Open wound of other and unspecified parts of abdomen • Open wound of other and unspecified parts of pelvic girdle • Open wound of other and unspecified parts of shoulder girdle • Open wound of other parts of foot • Open wound of other parts of forearm • Open wound of other parts of head • Open wound of other parts of lower leg • Open wound of other parts of neck • Open wound of other parts of thorax • Open wound of other parts of wrist and hand • Open wound of penis • Open wound of scalp • Open wound of scrotum and testes • Open wound of shoulder • Open wound of shoulder and upper arm • Open wound of thigh • Open wound of thorax • Open wound of thorax, part unspecified • Open wound of toe(s) NOS • Open wound of toe(s) with damage to nail • Open wound of toe(s) without damage to nail • Open wound of trunk, level unspecified • Open wound of unspecified body region • Open wound of upper arm • Open wound of upper limb, level unspecified • Open wound of vagina and vulva • Open wound of wrist and hand • Open wound of wrist and hand part, part unspecified • Penetrating wound of eyeball with foreign body • Penetrating wound of eyeball without foreign body • Penetrating wound of orbit with or without foreign body • Post-traumatic wound infection, not elsewhere classified • Postoperative Wound Infection • Puncture wound with (penetrating) foreign body NOS • Rupture of operation wound • Sequelae of open wound of head • Sequelae of open wound of lower limb • Sequelae of open wound of upper limb • Surgical Wound Dehiscence • Surgical Wound Infection • Wound Dehiscence, Surgical • Wound Healing • Wound Infection • Wound Infection, Postoperative • Wound Infection, Surgical • Wound myiasis • blighty wound • bullet wound • dirty wound • flesh wound • gunshot wound • gunshot wound NOS • haematoma of obstetric wound • loosely wound roll • obstetric (surgical) wound disruption • obstetric (surgical) wound haematoma • obstetric (surgical) wound infection • obstetric surgical wound infection • open wound involving nail (matrix) • open wound of ankle and foot • open wound of eyelid and periocular area • open wound of hip • open wound of wrist and hand • poorly wound roll • puncture wound NOS caused by plant thorns or spines • raw wound • stab wound • wound disruption • wound o.s. • wound tumor virus • wound up

Wind Cave National Park • break wind • close to the wind • east wind • get one's second wind • get one's wind • get the wind up • get wind • get wind of • high wind • north wind • sea wind • second wind • solar wind • south wind • trade wind • west wind • wind T • wind around • wind band • wind bell • wind chime • wind cone • wind cord • wind deflection • wind direction • wind energy • wind energy facility • wind exposure • wind farm • wind gage • wind gap • wind gauge • wind generation • wind generator • wind harp • wind instrument • wind machine • wind off • wind park • wind poppy • wind power • wind pump • wind resistance • wind rose • wind round • wind scale • wind sleeve • wind sock • wind speed • wind stop • wind tee • wind tunnel • wind turbine • wind up • wind vane • wind-bag • wind-damaged • wind-force • wind-pollinated

All Wound Up • All Wound Up (album) • All Wound Up (store) • Army Wound Ribbon • Bite wound • Black wound • Chronic wound • Deep Wound • Deeper the Wound • Entrance Wound • Exit Wound • Head Wound City • Head Wound City (EP) • Hesitation wound • History of wound care • International Red Cross Wound Classification System • Million-dollar wound • Mortal wound • Negative pressure wound therapy • Nurse with Wound • Nurse with Wound list • Omnipop (It's Only a Flesh Wound Lambchop) • On a Wound by Premeditation • Optimum Wound Profile • Phases of wound healing • Prayer to the shoulder wound of Jesus • Proliferative phase of wound healing • Salt in the Wound • Salt the Wound • Self-inflicted wound • So Wound • The Blind Wound • The Primal Wound • The Salt Wound Routine • The Wound-Dresser • Thunder Perfect Mind (Nurse with Wound album) • War Wound • Words from the Exit Wound • Wound Badge • Wound Chevron • Wound Creations • Wound Man • Wound Medal • Wound Medal (Austria–Hungary) • Wound Medal (India) • Wound Medal (Vietnam) • Wound ballistics • Wound colonization • Wound dehiscence • Wound healing • Wound in Wall • Wound stripe • Wound tumor virus • Wound, Ostomy and Continence Nurse • Wound-Up Penguin

A Wind Named Amnesia • Against the Wind • Against the Wind (Bob Seger song) • Against the Wind (TV series) • Against the Wind (disambiguation) • Airborne wind turbine • Anabatic wind • Any Way the Wind Blows • Apparent wind • At the Back of the North Wind • Bayamo (wind) • Bell of a wind instrument • Bendin' in the Wind • Blayney Wind Farm, New South Wales • Blow in the Wind • Blowin In The Wind • Blue Canyon Wind Farm • Bore (wind instruments) • Buran (wind) • Burning Wind • Cape Wind • Cape Wind Associates • Cape Wind Project • Cape Wind project • Catch the Wind (1971 album) • Catch the Wind (1986 album) • Catch the Wind (2000 album) • Catch the Wind (2003 album) • Catch the Wind (song) • Chicago Wind (Merle Haggard album) • Codrington Wind Farm • Cordonazo wind • Crookwell Wind Farm • Cry Like a Rainstorm, Howl Like the Wind • Dance with the Wind • Darrieus wind turbine • Desert Wind • Desert Wind (passenger train) • Diablo wind • Dust in the Wind • East Wind Community • Eastman Wind Ensemble • Edgar Wind • Egg beater wind turbine • Eggbeater wind turbine • Fighter in the Wind • Fire Wind • Foehn wind • Frequent Wind • Getting the wind knocked out of you • Gharo Wind Power Plant • Girl in the Wind • Gone With the Wind 1939 • Gone with the Wind • Gone with the Wind (film) • Gray County Wind Farm • Hans Wind • Head To Wind • Head to wind • Head-to-wind • High altitude wind power • Howlin' Wind • Hypersonic wind tunnel • Idiot Wind • Inherit the Wind • Ion wind • Jersey-Atlantic Wind Farm • Katabatic wind • Kingsbridge Wind Power Project • Kissin' the Wind • Laughing in the Wind • Let the Wind Blow • Loo (wind) • Lord Dark Wind • Lord Wind • Maestro (wind) • Maple Ridge Wind Farm • Marin (wind) • Mistral (wind) • Mono Wind Casino • Naushika of the Valley of the Wind • Nausicaa of the valley of the wind • Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind (film) • No Promises in the Wind • North Wind and the Sun • North wind and the sun • Of Stone, Wind and Pillor • Operation Ill Wind • Portland Wind Farm • Prairie Wind • Puna (wind) • Queensland Wind and Brass • Relative wind • Renault Wind • Ride the Wind • Ropin' the Wind • Royd Moor Wind Farm • Sarma (wind) • Shamal (wind) • Slide (wind instrument) • Solar Wind (comics) • Solar wind • Stateline Wind Farm • Tacking Into the Wind • The Lotus and the Wind • The North Wind and the Sun • The Other Side of the Wind • The Other Wind • The Shadow of the Wind • The Wind • The Wind Cries Mary • The Wind Done Gone • The Wind Has Risen • The Wind That Shakes the Barley (film) • The Wind Will Carry Us • The Wind and the Wheat • The Wind in the Willows • The Wind in the Willows (1996 film) • Thermal Wind Equation • Tokyo Kosei Wind Orchestra • Turby wind turbine • Vansycle Wind Project • Vertical wind tunnel • WIND (AM) • WIND (Italy) • WIND Hellas • War Wind • Wattle Point Wind Farm • Waymart Wind Farm • West Wind Aviation • When the Wind Blows (graphic novel) • When the Wind Blows (song) • Whispering Wind • Whispers in the Wind – Acoustic Improvisations • Whistle Down the Wind • Whistle Down the Wind (musical) • White Wind Zen Community • Wild Is the Wind • Wild Is the Wind (album) • Wild Is the Wind (disambiguation) • Wild Is the Wind (song) • Wind (band) • Wind (classical element) • Wind (disambiguation) • Wind (film) • Wind (song) • Wind Beneath My Wings • Wind Cave • Wind Chill (film) • Wind Chill Factor • Wind Chimes (song) • Wind Erosion on European Light Soils • Wind Gap, Pennsylvania • Wind Guardians • Wind It Up (Rewound) • Wind Lake, Wisconsin • Wind Lea • Wind Point, Wisconsin • Wind Prospect • Wind River (Wisconsin) • Wind River Arboretum • Wind River Experimenal Forest • Wind River Indian Reservation • Wind River Peak • Wind Science and Engineering Research Center • Wind Song • Wind Street • Wind band • Wind brace • Wind chill • Wind chill (disambiguation) • Wind chime • Wind coat APS • Wind controller • Wind farms • Wind gap (geographical feature) • Wind generator • Wind gradient • Wind machine • Wind of Change (song) • Wind organ • Wind park • Wind power • Wind profile power law • Wind profiler • Wind rose • Wind shear • Wind singer • Wind speed • Wind tunnel • Wind up radio • Wind vane • Wind 〜a breath of heart〜 • Wind, Sand and Stars • Wind-chill factor • Wind-up radio • You're Only Human (Second Wind) • Yu (wind instrument) • Zonda wind

Dictionnaire analogique

wound (adj.)

coiled[Similaire]


wound (n.)

injury; lesion; wound[ClasseHyper.]



wound (n.)


wound (n.)


wound (n.)


wound (n.)

infection[Hyper.]



wound (v. tr.)

injure; wound[ClasseHyper.]

injury, lesion, wound[GenV+comp]




Wind (n.) [MeSH]


wind (adj.)


wind (n.) [British]





wind (n.)

wind instrument; wind[ClasseHyper.]

music[Domaine]

MusicalInstrument[Domaine]




wind (n.)










wind (v.)

be[Hyper.]

bend, curve - curvature, curve[Dérivé]


wind (v.)

alarm, sound[Hyper.]

blow - blow[Domaine]




wind (v.)


Wikipedia - voir aussi

Wikipedia

Wound

                   
Wound
Classification and external resources

Wounded man
ICD-10 T14.0-T14.1
ICD-9 872-893
MeSH D014947

A wound is a type of injury in which skin is torn, cut or punctured (an open wound), or where blunt force trauma causes a contusion (a closed wound). In pathology, it specifically refers to a sharp injury which damages the dermis of the skin.

Contents

  Classification

  Open

  Superficial incision wounds from the claws of a cat.

Open wounds can be classified according to the object that caused the wound. The types of open wound are:

  • Incisions or incised wounds, caused by a clean, sharp-edged object such as a knife, a razor or a glass splinter.
  • Lacerations, irregular tear-like wounds caused by some blunt trauma. Lacerations and incisions may appear linear (regular) or stellate (irregular). The term laceration is commonly misused in reference to incisions.
  • Abrasions (grazes), superficial wounds in which the topmost layer of the skin (the epidermis) is scraped off. Abrasions are often caused by a sliding fall onto a rough surface.
  • Puncture wounds, caused by an object puncturing the skin, such as a nail or needle.
  • Penetration wounds, caused by an object such as a knife entering and coming out from the skin .
  • Gunshot wounds, caused by a bullet or similar projectile driving into or through the body. There may be two wounds, one at the site of entry and one at the site of exit, generally referred to as a "through-and-through."

  Closed

Closed wounds have fewer categories, but are just as dangerous as open wounds. The types of closed wounds are:

  • Contusions, more commonly known as bruises, caused by a blunt force trauma that damages tissue under the skin.
  • Hematomas, also called a blood tumor, caused by damage to a blood vessel that in turn causes blood to collect under the skin.
  • Crush injury, caused by a great or extreme amount of force applied over a long period of time.

  Pathophysiology

To heal a wound, the body undertakes a series of actions collectively known as the wound healing process.

  Management

  Wound, sewn with four stitches

The overall treatment depends on the type, cause, and depth of the wound as well as whether or not other structures beyond the skin (dermis) are involved. Treatment of recent lacerations involves examining, cleaning, and closing the wound. If there is a delay in treatment and the laceration occurred more than 6-24 hours before evaluation, it may be preferable to heal by secondary intention, due to the high rate of infection associated with delayed closure. Minor wounds, like bruises, will heal on their own, with skin discoloration usually disappearing in 1–2 weeks. Abrasions, which are wounds with intact skin (non-penetration through dermis to subcutaneous fat), usually require no active treatment except keeping the area clean, initially with soap and water. Most abrasions tend to have an overall better appearance post-healing when kept moist for about a week with an ointment, such as aquaphor healing ointment or vasoline. Puncture wounds may be prone to infection depending on the depth of penetration. The entry of puncture wound is left open to allow for bacteria or debris to be removed from inside.

  Cleaning

For simple lacerations, cleaning can be accomplished using a number of different solutions, including tap water, sterile saline solution, or an antiseptic solution, such as hydrogen peroxide. Infection rates may be lower with the use of tap water in regions where water quality is high.[1] Evidence for the effectiveness of any cleaning of simple wound however is limited.[1] Cleaning of a wound is also known as wound toilet.[2]

  Closure

If a person presents to a healthcare center within 6 hours of a laceration they are typically closed immediately after evaluating and cleaning the wound. After this point in time, however, there is a theoretical concern of increased risks of infection if closed immediately.[3] Thus some healthcare providers may delay closure while others may be willing to immediately close up to 24 hours after the injury.[3] A single study has found that using clean non sterile gloves is equivalent to using sterile gloves during wound closure.[4][5]

If closure of a wound is decided upon a number of techniques can be used. These include bandages, a cyanoacrylate glue, staples, and sutures. Absorbable sutures have the benefit over non absorbable sutures of not requiring removal. They are often preferred in children.[6] Buffering the pH of lidocaine makes the freezing less painful.[7]

  Dressings

The effectiveness of dressings and creams containing silver to prevent infection or improve healing is not currently supported by evidence.[8]

Egg Oil has been used in treating wounds and injuries. Ambroise Paré used a solution of egg yolk, oil of roses, and turpentine for war wounds, an old method that the Romans had discovered 1000 years before him. He published his first book 'The method of curing wounds caused by arquebus and firearms' in 1545.

Egg Oil is a natural emollient, and may be used externally on burn wounds,[9] where it reduces pain and promotes re-epithilisation while minimising scars[10]. It has been used effectively against burns in rural Ethiopia[11].

  Antibiotics

Most clean open wounds do not require any antibiotics unless the wound is contaminated or the bacterial cultures are positive. Excess use of antibiotics only leads to resistance and side effects. All open wounds should be cleaned at least twice a day with warm water and soap. Once the wound is cleaned, it should be covered with moist gauze. This should be followed by application of dry gauze and then the wound covered with a bandage. The purpose of a wet to dry dressing allows the bandage to adhere to dead tissue performing a mechanical debridement when removed.This allows new healthy skin to grow and prevents debris from collecting. When the wound is clean, it may be closed with a skin graft. No wound is ever closed if it is suspected to be infected.[12]

  Complications

Bacterial infection of wound can impede the healing process and lead to life threatening complications. Scientists at Sheffield University have identified a way of using light to rapidly detect the presence of bacteria. They are developing a portable kit in which specially designed molecules emit a light signal when bound to bacteria. Current laboratory-based detection of bacteria can take hours or even days.[13]

  Workup

Individuals who have wounds that are not healing should be investigated to find the causes. Many microbiological agents can be responsible for this. The basic workup includes evaluating the wound, its extent and severity. Cultures are usually obtained both from the wound site and blood. X rays are obtained and a tetanus shot may be administered if there is any doubt about prior vaccination [14]

  Chronic

Non-healing wounds of the diabetic foot are considered one of the most significant complications of diabetes, representing a major worldwide medical, social, and economic burden that greatly affects patient quality of life. Almost 24 million Americans—one in every 12—are diabetic and the disease is causing widespread disability and death at an epidemic pace, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Of those with diabetes, 6.5 million are estimated to suffer with chronic or non-healing wounds. Associated with inadequate circulation, poorly functioning veins, and immobility, non-healing wounds occur most frequently in the elderly and in people with diabetes—populations that are sharply rising as the nation ages and chronic diseases increase.

Although diabetes can ravage the body in many ways, non-healing ulcers on the feet and lower legs are common outward manifestations of the disease. Also, diabetics often suffer from nerve damage in their feet and legs, allowing small wounds or irritations to develop without awareness. Given the abnormalities of the microvasculature and other side effects of diabetes, these wounds take a long time to heal and require a specialized treatment approach for proper healing.

As many as 25% of diabetic patients will eventually develop foot ulcers, and recurrence within five years is 70%. If not aggressively treated, these wounds can lead to amputations. It is estimated that every 30 seconds a lower limb is amputated somewhere in the world because of a diabetic wound. Amputation often triggers a downward spiral of declining quality of life, frequently leading to disability and death. In fact, only about one third of diabetic amputees will live more than five years, a survival rate equivalent to that of many cancers.

Many of these lower extremity amputations can be prevented through an interdisciplinary approach to treatment involving a variety of advanced therapies and techniques, such as debridement, hyperbaric oxygen treatment therapy, dressing selection, special shoes, and patient education. When wounds persist, a specialized approach is required for healing.[15]

  History

  Medieval treatment of wound with lance grittings

From the Classical Period to the Medieval Period, the body and the soul were believed to be intimately connected, based on several theories put forth by the philosopher Plato. Wounds on the body were believed to correlate with wounds to the soul and vice versa; wounds were seen as an outward sign of an inward illness. Thus, a man who was wounded physically in a serious way was said to be hindered not only physically but spiritually as well. If the soul was wounded, that wound may also eventually become physically manifest, revealing the true state of the soul.[16] Wounds were also seen as writing on the "tablet" of the body. Wounds acquired in war, for example, told the story of a soldier in a form which all could see and understand, and the wounds of a martyr told the story of their faith.[16]

  See also

  References

  1. ^ a b Fernandez R, Griffiths R (2008). Fernandez, Ritin. ed. "Water for wound cleansing". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (1): CD003861. DOI:10.1002/14651858.CD003861.pub2. PMID 18254034. 
  2. ^ Simple wound management on patient.co.uk website, viewed 2012-01-08
  3. ^ a b Eliya, MC; Banda, GW (2011 Sep 7). Eliya, Martha C. ed. "Primary closure versus delayed closure for non bite traumatic wounds within 24 hours post injury". Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online) 9: CD008574. DOI:10.1002/14651858.CD008574.pub2. PMID 21901725. 
  4. ^ Perelman, VS; Francis, GJ, Rutledge, T, Foote, J, Martino, F, Dranitsaris, G (2004 Mar). "Sterile versus nonsterile gloves for repair of uncomplicated lacerations in the emergency department: a randomized controlled trial.". Annals of Emergency Medicine 43 (3): 362–70. PMID 14985664. 
  5. ^ van den Broek, PJ (2011). "[Sterile gloves are necessary in minor surgery].". Nederlands tijdschrift voor geneeskunde 155 (18): A3341. PMID 21466736. 
  6. ^ "BestBets: Absorbable sutures in pediatric lacerations". http://www.bestbets.org/bets/bet.php?id=874. 
  7. ^ Cepeda MS, Tzortzopoulou A, Thackrey M, Hudcova J, Arora Gandhi P, Schumann R (2010). Tzortzopoulou, Aikaterini. ed. "Adjusting the pH of lidocaine for reducing pain on injection". Cochrane Database Syst Rev 12 (12): CD006581. DOI:10.1002/14651858.CD006581.pub2. PMID 21154371. 
  8. ^ D'Amico G, Pagliaro L, Pietrosi G, Tarantino I (2010). d'Amico, Gennaro. ed. "Emergency sclerotherapy versus vasoactive drugs for bleeding oesophageal varices in cirrhotic patients". Cochrane Database Syst Rev 3 (3): CD002233. DOI:10.1002/14651858.CD002233.pub2. PMID 20238318. 
  9. ^ Iranian Red Cresent Medical Journal: The Effect of Egg Yolk Oil in the Healing of Third Degree Burn Wound in Rats
  10. ^ United States Patent US4219544 p.2. Retrieved October 2011.
  11. ^ The Epidemiology of Burns in Rural Ethiopia: The Effect of Egg Yolk in the Healing of Burn Wounds in Humans
  12. ^ Wound Infection Signs And Preventive Measures. Retrieved on 2010-01-27
  13. ^ "Light to detect wound infection" (web). UK scientists have identified a way of using light to rapidly detect the presence of bacteria. bodat. BBC News. 11 March 2007. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/6427787.stm. Retrieved 2008-03-17. 
  14. ^ Work Up eMedicine General Surgery. Retrieved on 2010-01-27
  15. ^ "The Clinical Case for Use of Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy in the Treatment of Diabetic Wounds," Diversified Clinical Services, copyright 2009
  16. ^ a b Reichardt, Paul F. (1984). "Gawain and the image of the wound". PMLA 99 (2): 154–161. DOI:10.2307/462158. JSTOR 462158. 

  External links

   
               

Wind

                   
Wind, from the Tacuinum Sanitatis
A breeze lifts a veil

Wind is the flow of gases on a large scale. On Earth, wind consists of the bulk movement of air. In outer space, solar wind is the movement of gases or charged particles from the sun through space, while planetary wind is the outgassing of light chemical elements from a planet's atmosphere into space. Winds are commonly classified by their spatial scale, their speed, the types of forces that cause them, the regions in which they occur, and their effect. The strongest observed winds on a planet in our solar system occur on Neptune and Saturn.

In meteorology, winds are often referred to according to their strength, and the direction from which the wind is blowing. Short bursts of high speed wind are termed gusts. Strong winds of intermediate duration (around one minute) are termed squalls. Long-duration winds have various names associated with their average strength, such as breeze, gale, storm, hurricane, and typhoon. Wind occurs on a range of scales, from thunderstorm flows lasting tens of minutes, to local breezes generated by heating of land surfaces and lasting a few hours, to global winds resulting from the difference in absorption of solar energy between the climate zones on Earth. The two main causes of large-scale atmospheric circulation are the differential heating between the equator and the poles, and the rotation of the planet (Coriolis effect). Within the tropics, thermal low circulations over terrain and high plateaus can drive monsoon circulations. In coastal areas the sea breeze/land breeze cycle can define local winds; in areas that have variable terrain, mountain and valley breezes can dominate local winds.

In human civilization, wind has inspired mythology, influenced the events of history, expanded the range of transport and warfare, and provided a power source for mechanical work, electricity and recreation. Wind powers the voyages of sailing ships across Earth's oceans. Hot air balloons use the wind to take short trips, and powered flight uses it to increase lift and reduce fuel consumption. Areas of wind shear caused by various weather phenomena can lead to dangerous situations for aircraft. When winds become strong, trees and man-made structures are damaged or destroyed.

Winds can shape landforms, via a variety of aeolian processes such as the formation of fertile soils, such as loess, and by erosion. Dust from large deserts can be moved great distances from its source region by the prevailing winds; winds that are accelerated by rough topography and associated with dust outbreaks have been assigned regional names in various parts of the world because of their significant effects on those regions. Wind affects the spread of wildfires. Winds disperse seeds from various plants, enabling the survival and dispersal of those plant species, as well as flying insect populations. When combined with cold temperatures, wind has a negative impact on livestock. Wind affects animals' food stores, as well as their hunting and defensive strategies.

Contents

  Cause

  Surface analysis of Great Blizzard of 1888. Areas with greater isobaric packing indicate higher winds.

Wind is caused by differences in pressure. When a difference in pressure exists, the air is accelerated from higher to lower pressure. On a rotating planet, the air will be deflected by the Coriolis effect, except exactly on the equator. Globally, the two major driving factors of large-scale winds (the atmospheric circulation) are the differential heating between the equator and the poles (difference in absorption of solar energy leading to buoyancy forces) and the rotation of the planet. Outside the tropics and aloft from frictional effects of the surface, the large-scale winds tend to approach geostrophic balance. Near the Earth's surface, friction causes the wind to be slower than it would be otherwise. Surface friction also causes winds to blow more inward into low pressure areas.[1]

Winds defined by an equilibrium of physical forces are used in the decomposition and analysis of wind profiles. They are useful for simplifying the atmospheric equations of motion and for making qualitative arguments about the horizontal and vertical distribution of winds. The geostrophic wind component is the result of the balance between Coriolis force and pressure gradient force. It flows parallel to isobars and approximates the flow above the atmospheric boundary layer in the midlatitudes.[2] The thermal wind is the difference in the geostrophic wind between two levels in the atmosphere. It exists only in an atmosphere with horizontal temperature gradients.[3] The ageostrophic wind component is the difference between actual and geostrophic wind, which is responsible for air "filling up" cyclones over time.[4] The gradient wind is similar to the geostrophic wind but also includes centrifugal force (or centripetal acceleration).[5]

  Measurement

  A windmill style of anemometer
  An occluded mesocyclone tornado (Oklahoma, May 1999)

Wind direction is reported by the direction from which it originates. For example, a northerly wind blows from the north to the south.[6] Weather vanes pivot to indicate the direction of the wind.[7] At airports, windsocks are primarily used to indicate wind direction, but can also be used to estimate wind speed by its angle of hang.[8] Wind speed is measured by anemometers, most commonly using rotating cups or propellers. When a high measurement frequency is needed (such as in research applications), wind can be measured by the propagation speed of ultrasound signals or by the effect of ventilation on the resistance of a heated wire.[9] Another type of anemometer uses pitot tubes that take advantage of the pressure differential between an inner tube and an outer tube that is exposed to the wind to determine the dynamic pressure, which is then used to compute the wind speed.[10]

Sustained wind speeds are reported globally at a 10 meters (33 ft) height and are averaged over a 10 minute time frame. The United States reports winds over a 1 minute average for tropical cyclones,[11] and a 2 minute average within weather observations.[12] India typically reports winds over a 3 minute average.[13] Knowing the wind sampling average is important, as the value of a one-minute sustained wind is typically 14% greater than a ten-minute sustained wind.[14] A short burst of high speed wind is termed a wind gust, one technical definition of a wind gust is: the maxima that exceed the lowest wind speed measured during a ten minute time interval by 10 knots (19 km/h). A squall is a doubling of the wind speed above a certain threshold, which lasts for a minute or more.

To determine winds aloft, rawinsondes determine wind speed by GPS, radio navigation, or radar tracking of the probe.[15] Alternatively, movement of the parent weather balloon position can be tracked from the ground visually using theodolites.[16] Remote sensing techniques for wind include SODAR, Doppler LIDARs and RADARs, which can measure the Doppler shift of electromagnetic radiation scattered or reflected off suspended aerosols or molecules, and radiometers and radars can be used to measure the surface roughness of the ocean from space or airplanes. Ocean roughness can be used to estimate wind velocity close to the sea surface over oceans. Geostationary satellite imagery can be used to estimate the winds throughout the atmosphere based upon how far clouds move from one image to the next. Wind Engineering describes the study of the effects of the wind on the built environment, including buildings, bridges and other man-made objects.

  Wind force scale

Historically, the Beaufort wind force scale provides an empirical description of wind speed based on observed sea conditions. Originally it was a 13-level scale, but during the 1940s, the scale was expanded to 17 levels.[17] There are general terms that differentiate winds of different average speeds such as a breeze, a gale, a storm, tornado, or a hurricane. Within the Beaufort scale, gale-force winds lie between 28 knots (52 km/h) and 55 knots (102 km/h) with preceding adjectives such as moderate, fresh, strong, and whole used to differentiate the wind's strength within the gale category.[18] A storm has winds of 56 knots (104 km/h) to 63 knots (117 km/h).[19] The terminology for tropical cyclones differs from one region to another globally. Most ocean basins use the average wind speed to determine the tropical cyclone's category. Below is a summary of the classifications used by Regional Specialized Meteorological Centers worldwide:

General wind classifications Tropical cyclone classifications (all winds are 10-minute averages)
Beaufort scale[17] 10-minute sustained winds (knots) General term[20] N Indian Ocean
IMD
SW Indian Ocean
MF
Australian region
South Pacific
BoM, BMKG, FMS, MSNZ
NW Pacific
JMA
NW Pacific
JTWC
NE Pacific &
N Atlantic
NHC & CPHC
0 <1 Calm Low Pressure Area Tropical disturbance Tropical low
Tropical Depression
Tropical depression Tropical depression Tropical depression
1 1–3 Light air
2 4–6 Light breeze
3 7–10 Gentle breeze
4 11–16 Moderate breeze
5 17–21 Fresh breeze Depression
6 22–27 Strong breeze
7 28–29 Moderate gale Deep depression Tropical depression
30–33
8 34–40 Fresh gale Cyclonic storm Moderate tropical storm Tropical cyclone (1) Tropical storm Tropical storm Tropical storm
9 41–47 Strong gale
10 48–55 Whole gale Severe cyclonic storm Severe tropical storm Tropical cyclone (2) Severe tropical storm
11 56–63 Storm
12 64–72 Hurricane Very severe cyclonic storm Tropical cyclone Severe tropical cyclone (3) Typhoon Typhoon Hurricane (1)
13 73–85 Hurricane (2)
14 86–89 Severe tropical cyclone (4) Major hurricane (3)
15 90–99 Intense tropical cyclone
16 100–106 Major hurricane (4)
17 107–114 Severe tropical cyclone (5)
115–119 Very intense tropical cyclone Super typhoon
>120 Super cyclonic storm Major hurricane (5)

  Fujita scale

The Enhanced Fujita Scale (EF Scale) rates the strength of tornadoes in the United States based on the damage they cause. Below is that scale.

Scale Wind speed Relative frequency Potential damage
mph km/h
EF0 65–85 105–137 53.5% Minor or no damage.

Peels surface off some roofs; some damage to gutters or siding; branches broken off trees; shallow-rooted trees pushed over.

Confirmed tornadoes with no reported damage (i.e., those that remain in open fields) are always rated EF0.

EF0 damage example
EF1 86–110 138–178 31.6% Moderate damage.

Roofs severely stripped; mobile homes overturned or badly damaged; loss of exterior doors; windows and other glass broken.

EF1 damage example
EF2 111–135 179–218 10.7% Considerable damage.

Roofs torn off well-constructed houses; foundations of frame homes shifted; mobile homes completely destroyed; large trees snapped or uprooted; light-object missiles generated; cars lifted off ground.

EF2 damage example
EF3 136–165 219–266 3.4% Severe damage.

Entire stories of well-constructed houses destroyed; severe damage to large buildings such as shopping malls; trains overturned; trees debarked; heavy cars lifted off the ground and thrown; structures with weak foundations are badly damaged.

EF3 damage example
EF4 166–200 267–322 0.7% Extreme damage.

Well-constructed and whole frame houses completely leveled; cars and other large objects thrown and small missiles generated.

EF4 damage example
EF5 >200 >322 <0.1% Total Destruction.

Strong-framed, well-built houses leveled off and foundations swept away; steel-reinforced concrete structures are critically damaged; tall buildings collapse or have severe structural deformations.

EF5 damage example

  Station model

  Wind plotting within a station model

The station model plotted on surface weather maps uses a wind barb to show both wind direction and speed. The wind barb shows the speed using "flags" on the end.

  • Each half of a flag depicts 5 knots (9.3 km/h) of wind.
  • Each full flag depicts 10 knots (19 km/h) of wind.
  • Each pennant (filled triangle) depicts 50 knots (93 km/h) of wind.[21]

Winds are depicted as blowing from the direction the barb is facing. Therefore, a northeast wind will be depicted with a line extending from the cloud circle to the northeast, with flags indicating wind speed on the northeast end of this line.[22] Once plotted on a map, an analysis of isotachs (lines of equal wind speeds) can be accomplished. Isotachs are particularly useful in diagnosing the location of the jet stream on upper level constant pressure charts, and are usually located at or above the 300 hPa level.[23]

  Wind energy

Wind energy is the kinetic energy of the air in motion. Total wind energy flowing through an imaginary area A during the time t is:

E = A·v·t·ρ·½ v2,

where v is the wind velocity and ρ is the air density. The formula presented is structured in two parts: (A·v·t) is the volume of air passing through A, which is considered perpendicular to the wind velocity; (ρ·½ v2) is the kinetic energy of the moving air per unit volume.

Total wind power is:

P = E/t = A·ρ·½ v3

Wind power is thus proportional to the third power of the wind velocity.

  Theoretical power captured by a wind turbine

Total wind power could be captured only if the wind velocity is reduced to zero. In a realistic wind turbine this is impossible, as the captured air must also leave the turbine. A relation between the input and output wind velocity must be considered. Using the concept of stream tube, the maximal achievable extraction of wind power by a wind turbine is 59% of the total theoretical wind power[24] (see: Betz' law).

  Practical wind turbine power

Further insufficiencies, such as rotor blade friction and drag, gearbox losses, generator and converter losses, reduce the power delivered by a wind turbine. The basic relation that the turbine power is (approximately) proportional to the third power of velocity remains.

  Global climatology

  The westerlies and trade winds
  Winds are part of Earth's atmospheric circulation.

Easterly winds, on average, dominate the flow pattern across the poles, westerly winds blow across the mid-latitudes of the earth, to the north of the subtropical ridge, while easterlies again dominate the tropics.

Directly under the subtropical ridge are the doldrums, or horse latitudes, where winds are lighter. Many of the Earth's deserts lie near the average latitude of the subtropical ridge, where descent reduces the relative humidity of the air mass.[25] The strongest winds are in the mid-latitudes where cold Arctic air meets warm air from the tropics.

  Tropics

The trade winds (also called trades) are the prevailing pattern of easterly surface winds found in the tropics towards the Earth's equator.[26] The trade winds blow predominantly from the northeast in the Northern Hemisphere and from the southeast in the Southern Hemisphere.[27] The trade winds act as the steering flow for tropical cyclones that form over world's oceans.[28] Trade winds also steer African dust westward across the Atlantic Ocean into the Caribbean Sea, as well as portions of southeast North America.[29]

A monsoon is a seasonal prevailing wind that lasts for several months within tropical regions. The term was first used in English in India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, and neighboring countries to refer to the big seasonal winds blowing from the Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea in the southwest bringing heavy rainfall to the area.[30] Its poleward progression is accelerated by the development off a heat low over the Asian, African, and North American continents during May through July, and over Australia in December.[31][32][33]

  Westerlies and their impact

The Westerlies or the Prevailing Westerlies are the prevailing winds in the middle latitudes between 35 and 65 degrees latitude. These prevailing winds blow from the west to the east to the north of the subtropical ridge,[34][35] and steer extratropical cyclones in this general manner. The winds are predominantly from the southwest in the Northern Hemisphere and from the northwest in the Southern Hemisphere.[27] They are strongest in the winter when the pressure is lower over the poles, and weakest during the summer and when pressures are higher over the poles.[36]

Together with the trade winds, the westerlies enabled a round-trip trade route for sailing ships crossing the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, as the westerlies lead to the development of strong ocean currents on the western sides of oceans in both hemispheres through the process of western intensification.[37] These western ocean currents transport warm, sub tropical water polewards toward the polar regions. The westerlies can be particularly strong, especially in the southern hemisphere, where there is less land in the middle latitudes to cause the flow pattern to amplify, which slows the winds down. The strongest westerly winds in the middle latitudes are within a band known as the Roaring Forties, between 40 and 50 degrees latitude south of the equator.[38] The Westerlies play an important role in carrying the warm, equatorial waters and winds to the western coasts of continents,[39][40] especially in the southern hemisphere because of its vast oceanic expanse.

  Polar easterlies

The polar easterlies, also known as Polar Hadley cells, are dry, cold prevailing winds that blow from the high-pressure areas of the polar highs at the north and south poles towards the low-pressure areas within the Westerlies at high latitudes. Unlike the Westerlies, these prevailing winds blow from the east to the west, and are often weak and irregular.[41] Because of the low sun angle, cold air builds up and subsides at the pole creating surface high-pressure areas, forcing an equatorward outflow of air;[42] that outflow is deflected eastward by the Coriolis effect.

  Local considerations

  Local winds around the world. These winds are formed through the heating of land (from mountains or flat terrain)

  Sea and land breezes

  A: Sea breeze (occurs at daytime), B: Land breeze (occurs at night)

In coastal regions, sea breezes and land breezes can be important factors in a location's prevailing winds. The sea is warmed by the sun more slowly because of water's greater specific heat compared to land.[43] As the temperature of the surface of the land rises, the land heats the air above it by conduction. The warm air is less dense than the surrounding environment and so it rises. This causes a pressure gradient of about 2 millibars from the ocean to the land. The cooler air above the sea, now with higher sea level pressure, flows inland into the lower pressure, creating a cooler breeze near the coast. When large-scale winds are calm, the strength of the sea breeze is directly proportional to the temperature difference between the land mass and the sea. If an offshore wind of 8 knots (15 km/h) exists, the sea breeze is not likely to develop.

At night, the land cools off more quickly than the ocean because of differences in their specific heat values. This temperature change causes the daytime sea breeze to dissipate. When the temperature onshore cools below the temperature offshore, the pressure over the water will be lower than that of the land, establishing a land breeze, as long as an onshore wind is not strong enough to oppose it.[44]

  Near mountains

  Mountain wave schematic. The wind flows towards a mountain and produces a first oscillation (A). A second wave occurs further away and higher. The lenticular clouds form at the peak of the waves (B).

Over elevated surfaces, heating of the ground exceeds the heating of the surrounding air at the same altitude above sea level, creating an associated thermal low over the terrain and enhancing any thermal lows that would have otherwise existed,[45][46] and changing the wind circulation of the region. In areas where there is rugged topography that significantly interrupts the environmental wind flow, the wind circulation between mountains and valleys is the most important contributor to the prevailing winds. Hills and valleys substantially distort the airflow by increasing friction between the atmosphere and landmass by acting as a physical block to the flow, deflecting the wind parallel to the range just upstream of the topography, which is known as a barrier jet. This barrier jet can increase the low level wind by 45%.[47] Wind direction also changes because of the contour of the land.[48]

If there is a pass in the mountain range, winds will rush through the pass with considerable speed because of the Bernoulli principle that describes an inverse relationship between speed and pressure. The airflow can remain turbulent and erratic for some distance downwind into the flatter countryside. These conditions are dangerous to ascending and descending airplanes.[48] Cool winds accelerating through mountain gaps have been given regional names. In Central America, examples include the Papagayo wind, the Panama wind, and the Tehuano wind. In Europe, similar winds are known as the Bora, Tramontane, and Mistral. When these winds blow over open waters, they increase mixing of the upper layers of the ocean that elevates cool, nutrient rich waters to the surface, which leads to increased marine life.[49]

In mountainous areas, local distortion of the airflow becomes severe. Jagged terrain combines to produce unpredictable flow patterns and turbulence, such as rotors, which can be topped by lenticular clouds. Strong updrafts, downdrafts and eddies develop as the air flows over hills and down valleys. Orographic precipitation occurs on the windward side of mountains and is caused by the rising air motion of a large-scale flow of moist air across the mountain ridge, also known as upslope flow, resulting in adiabatic cooling and condensation. In mountainous parts of the world subjected to relatively consistent winds (for example, the trade winds), a more moist climate usually prevails on the windward side of a mountain than on the leeward or downwind side. Moisture is removed by orographic lift, leaving drier air on the descending and generally warming, leeward side where a rain shadow is observed.[50] Winds that flow over mountains down into lower elevations are known as downslope winds. These winds are warm and dry. In Europe downwind of the Alps, they are known as foehn. In Poland, an example is the halny wiatr. In Argentina, the local name for downsloped winds is zonda. In Java, the local name for such winds is koembang. In New Zealand, they are known as the Nor'west arch, and are accompanied by the cloud formation they are named after that has inspired artwork over the years.[51] In the Great Plains of the United States, the winds are known as a chinook. In California, downsloped winds are funneled through mountain passes, which intensify their effect, and examples into Santa Ana and sundowner winds. Wind speeds during downslope wind effect can exceed 160 kilometers per hour (99 mph).[52]

  Average wind speeds

As described earlier, prevailing and local winds are not spread evenly across the earth, which means that wind speeds also differ by region. In addition, the wind speed also increases with the altitude.

  Wind power density

Nowadays, a yardstick used to determine the best locations for wind energy development is referred to as wind power density (WPD). It is a calculation relating to the effective force of the wind at a particular location, frequently expressed in terms of the elevation above ground level over a period of time. It takes into account wind velocity and mass. Color coded maps are prepared for a particular area are described as, for example, "mean annual power density at 50 meters." The results of the above calculation are included in an index developed by the National Renewable Energy Lab and referred to as "NREL CLASS." The larger the WPD calculation, the higher it is rated by class.[53] At the end of 2008, worldwide nameplate capacity of wind-powered generators was 120.8 gigawatts.[54] Although wind produces only about 1.5% of worldwide electricity use,[54] it is growing rapidly, having doubled in the three years between 2005 and 2008. In several countries it has achieved relatively high levels of penetration, accounting for approximately 19% of electricity production in Denmark, 10% in Spain and Portugal, and 7% in Germany and the Republic of Ireland in 2008. One study indicates that an entirely renewable energy supply based on 70% wind is attainable at today's power prices by linking wind farms with an HVDC supergrid.[55]

  Shear

  Hodograph plot of wind vectors at various heights in the troposphere, which is used to diagnose vertical wind shear

Wind shear, sometimes referred to as windshear or wind gradient, is a difference in wind speed and direction over a relatively short distance in the Earth's atmosphere.[56] Wind shear can be broken down into vertical and horizontal components, with horizontal wind shear seen across weather fronts and near the coast,[57] and vertical shear typically near the surface,[58] though also at higher levels in the atmosphere near upper level jets and frontal zones aloft.[59]

Wind shear itself is a microscale meteorological phenomenon occurring over a very small distance, but it can be associated with mesoscale or synoptic scale weather features such as squall lines and cold fronts. It is commonly observed near microbursts and downbursts caused by thunderstorms,[60] weather fronts, areas of locally higher low level winds referred to as low level jets, near mountains,[61] radiation inversions that occur because of clear skies and calm winds, buildings,[62] wind turbines,[63] and sailboats.[64] Wind shear has a significant effect during take-off and landing of aircraft because of their effects on control of the aircraft,[65] and was a significant cause of aircraft accidents involving large loss of life within the United States.[60]

Sound movement through the atmosphere is affected by wind shear, which can bend the wave front, causing sounds to be heard where they normally would not, or vice versa.[66] Strong vertical wind shear within the troposphere also inhibits tropical cyclone development,[67] but helps to organize individual thunderstorms into living longer life cycles that can then produce severe weather.[68] The thermal wind concept explains how differences in wind speed with height are dependent on horizontal temperature differences, and explains the existence of the jet stream.[69]

  Usage of wind

  History

  Winds according to Aristotle.

As a natural force, the wind was often personified as one or more wind gods or as an expression of the supernatural in many cultures. Vayu is the Hindu God of Wind.[70][71] The Greek wind gods include Boreas, Notus, Eurus, and Zephyrus.[71] Aeolus, in varying interpretations the ruler or keeper of the four winds, has also been described as Astraeus, the god of dusk who fathered the four winds with Eos, goddess of dawn. The Ancient Greeks also observed the seasonal change of the winds, as evidenced by the Tower of the Winds in Athens.[71] Venti are the Roman gods of the winds.[72] Fūjin, the Japanese wind god and is one of the eldest Shinto gods. According to legend, he was present at the creation of the world and first let the winds out of his bag to clear the world of mist.[73] In Norse mythology, Njord is the god of the wind.[71] There are also four dvärgar (Norse dwarves), named Norðri, Suðri, Austri and Vestri, and probably the four stags of Yggdrasil, personify the four winds, and parallel the four Greek wind gods.[74] Stribog is the name of the Slavic god of winds, sky and air. He is said to be the ancestor (grandfather) of the winds of the eight directions.[71]

Kamikaze (神風) is a Japanese word, usually translated as divine wind, believed to be a gift from the gods. The term is first known to have been used as the name of a pair or series of typhoons that are said to have saved Japan from two Mongol fleets under Kublai Khan that attacked Japan in 1274 and again in 1281.[75] Protestant Wind is a name for the storm that deterred the Spanish Armada from an invasion of England in 1588 where the wind played a pivotal role,[76] or the favorable winds that enabled William of Orange to invade England in 1688.[77] During Napoleon's Egyptian Campaign, the French soldiers had a hard time with the khamsin wind: when the storm appeared "as a blood-stint in the distant sky", the natives went to take cover, while the French "did not react until it was too late, then choked and fainted in the blinding, suffocating walls of dust."[78] During the North African Campaign of the World War II, "allied and German troops were several times forced to halt in mid-battle because of sandstorms caused by khamsin ... Grains of sand whirled by the wind blinded the soldiers and created electrical disturbances that rendered compasses useless."[79]

  Transportation

  RAF Exeter airfield on 20 May 1944, showing the layout of the runways that allow aircraft to take off and land into the wind

There are many different forms of sailing ships, but they all have certain basic things in common. Except for rotor ships using the Magnus effect, every sailing ship has a hull, rigging and at least one mast to hold up the sails that use the wind to power the ship.[80] Ocean journeys by sailing ship can take many months,[81] and a common hazard is becoming becalmed because of lack of wind,[82] or being blown off course by severe storms or winds that do not allow progress in the desired direction.[83] A severe storm could lead to shipwreck, and the loss of all hands.[84] Sailing ships can only carry a certain quantity of supplies in their hold, so they have to plan long voyages carefully to include appropriate provisions, including fresh water.[85]

For aerodynamic aircraft which operate relative to the air, winds affect groundspeed,[86] and in the case of lighter-than-air vehicles, wind may play a significant or solitary role in their movement and ground track.[87] The velocity of surface wind is generally the primary factor governing the direction of flight operations at an airport, and airfield runways are aligned to account for the common wind direction(s) of the local area. While taking off with a tailwind may be necessary under certain circumstances, a headwind is generally desirable. A tailwind increases takeoff distance required and decreases the climb gradient.[88]

  Power source

  This wind turbine generates electricity from wind power.

Historically, the ancient Sinhalese of Anuradhapura and in other cities around Sri Lanka used the monsoon winds to power furnaces as early as 300 BCE.[89] The furnaces were constructed on the path of the monsoon winds to exploit the wind power, to bring the temperatures inside up to 1,200 °C (2,190 °F). An early historical reference to a rudimentary windmill was used to power an organ in the first century CE.[90] The first practical windmills were later built in Sistan, Afghanistan, from the 7th century CE. These were vertical-axle windmills, which had long vertical driveshafts with rectangle shaped blades.[91] Made of six to twelve sails covered in reed matting or cloth material, these windmills were used to grind corn and draw up water, and were used in the gristmilling and sugarcane industries.[92] Horizontal-axle windmills were later used extensively in Northwestern Europe to grind flour beginning in the 1180s, and many Dutch windmills still exist. High altitude wind power is the focus of over 30 companies worldwide using tethered technology rather than ground-hugging compressive-towers.[93] Oil is being saved by using wind for powering cargo ships by use of the mechanical energy converted from the wind's kinetic energy using very large kites.[94]

  Recreation

  Otto Lilienthal in flight

Wind figures prominently in several popular sports, including recreational hang gliding, hot air ballooning, kite flying, snowkiting, kite landboarding, kite surfing, paragliding, sailing, and windsurfing. In gliding, wind gradients just above the surface affect the takeoff and landing phases of flight of a glider. Wind gradient can have a noticeable effect on ground launches, also known as winch launches or wire launches. If the wind gradient is significant or sudden, or both, and the pilot maintains the same pitch attitude, the indicated airspeed will increase, possibly exceeding the maximum ground launch tow speed. The pilot must adjust the airspeed to deal with the effect of the gradient.[95] When landing, wind shear is also a hazard, particularly when the winds are strong. As the glider descends through the wind gradient on final approach to landing, airspeed decreases while sink rate increases, and there is insufficient time to accelerate prior to ground contact. The pilot must anticipate the wind gradient and use a higher approach speed to compensate for it.[96]

  Role in the natural world

In arid climates, the main source of erosion is wind.[97] The general wind circulation moves small particulates such as dust across wide oceans thousands of kilometers downwind of their point of origin,[98] which is known as deflation. Westerly winds in the mid-latitudes of the planet drive the movement of ocean currents from west to east across the world's oceans. Wind has a very important role in aiding plants and other immobile organisms in dispersal of seeds, spores, pollen, etc. Although wind is not the primary form of seed dispersal in plants, it provides dispersal for a large percentage of the biomass of land plants.

  Erosion

  A rock formation in the Altiplano, Bolivia, sculpted by wind erosion

Erosion can be the result of material movement by the wind. There are two main effects. First, wind causes small particles to be lifted and therefore moved to another region. This is called deflation. Second, these suspended particles may impact on solid objects causing erosion by abrasion (ecological succession). Wind erosion generally occurs in areas with little or no vegetation, often in areas where there is insufficient rainfall to support vegetation. An example is the formation of sand dunes, on a beach or in a desert.[99] Loess is a homogeneous, typically nonstratified, porous, friable, slightly coherent, often calcareous, fine-grained, silty, pale yellow or buff, windblown (Aeolian) sediment.[100] It generally occurs as a widespread blanket deposit that covers areas of hundreds of square kilometers and tens of meters thick. Loess often stands in either steep or vertical faces.[101] Loess tends to develop into highly rich soils. Under appropriate climatic conditions, areas with loess are among the most agriculturally productive in the world.[102] Loess deposits are geologically unstable by nature, and will erode very readily. Therefore, windbreaks (such as big trees and bushes) are often planted by farmers to reduce the wind erosion of loess.[97]

  Desert dust migration

During mid-summer (July), the westward-moving trade winds south of the northward-moving subtropical ridge expand northwestward from the Caribbean Sea into southeastern North America. When dust from the Sahara moving around the southern periphery of the ridge within the belt of trade winds moves over land, rainfall is suppressed and the sky changes from a blue to a white appearance, which leads to an increase in red sunsets. Its presence negatively impacts air quality by adding to the count of airborne particulates.[103] Over 50% of the African dust that reaches the United States affects Florida.[104] Since 1970, dust outbreaks have worsened because of periods of drought in Africa. There is a large variability in the dust transport to the Caribbean and Florida from year to year.[105] Dust events have been linked to a decline in the health of coral reefs across the Caribbean and Florida, primarily since the 1970s.[106] Similar dust plumes originate in the Gobi desert, which combined with pollutants, spread large distances downwind, or eastward, into North America.[98]

There are local names for winds associated with sand and dust storms. The Calima carries dust on southeast winds into the Canary islands.[107] The Harmattan carries dust during the winter into the Gulf of Guinea.[108] The Sirocco brings dust from north Africa into southern Europe because of the movement of extratropical cyclones through the Mediterranean Sea.[109] Spring storm systems moving across the eastern Mediterranean Sea cause dust to carry across Egypt and the Arabian peninsula, which are locally known as Khamsin.[110] The Shamal is caused by cold fronts lifting dust into the atmosphere for days at a time across the Persian Gulf states.[111]

  Effect on plants

  Tumbleweed blown against a fence

Wind dispersal of seeds, or anemochory, is one of the more primitive means of dispersal. Wind dispersal can take on one of two primary forms: seeds can float on the breeze or alternatively, they can flutter to the ground.[112] The classic examples of these dispersal mechanisms include dandelions (Taraxacum spp., Asteraceae), which have a feathery pappus attached to their seeds and can be dispersed long distances, and maples (Acer (genus) spp., Sapindaceae), which have winged seeds and flutter to the ground. An important constraint on wind dispersal is the need for abundant seed production to maximize the likelihood of a seed landing in a site suitable for germination. There are also strong evolutionary constraints on this dispersal mechanism. For instance, species in the Asteraceae on islands tended to have reduced dispersal capabilities (i.e., larger seed mass and smaller pappus) relative to the same species on the mainland.[113] Reliance upon wind dispersal is common among many weedy or ruderal species. Unusual mechanisms of wind dispersal include tumbleweeds. A related process to anemochory is anemophily, which is the process where pollen is distributed by wind. Large families of plants are pollinated in this manner, which is favored when individuals of the dominant plant species are spaced closely together.[114]

Wind also limits tree growth. On coasts and isolated mountains, the tree line is often much lower than in corresponding altitudes inland and in larger, more complex mountain systems, because strong winds reduce tree growth. High winds scour away thin soils through erosion,[115] as well as damage limbs and twigs. When high winds knock down or uproot trees, the process is known as windthrow. This is most likely on windward slopes of mountains, with severe cases generally occurring to tree stands that are 75 years or older.[116] Plant varieties near the coast, such as the Sitka spruce and sea grape,[117] are pruned back by wind and salt spray near the coastline.[118]

Wind can also cause plants damage through sand abrasion. Strong winds will pick up loose sand and topsoil and hurl it through the air at speeds ranging from 25–40 miles per hour. Such windblown sand causes extensive damage to plant seedlings because it ruptures plant cells, making them vulnerable to evaporation and drought. Using a mechanical sandblaster in a laboratory setting, scientists affiliated with the Agricultural Research Service studied the effects of windblown sand abrasion on cotton seedlings. The study showed that the seedlings responded to the damage created by the windblown sand abrasion by shifting energy from stem and root growth to the growth and repair of the damaged stems.[119] After a period of four weeks the growth of the seedling once again became uniform throughout the plant, as it was before the windblown sand abrasion occurred.[120]

  Effect on animals

Cattle and sheep are prone to wind chill caused by a combination of wind and cold temperatures, when winds exceed 40 kilometers per hour (25 mph), rendering their hair and wool coverings ineffective.[121] Although penguins use both a layer of fat and feathers to help guard against coldness in both water and air, their flippers and feet are less immune to the cold. In the coldest climates such as Antarctica, emperor penguins use huddling behavior to survive the wind and cold, continuously alternating the members on the outside of the assembled group, which reduces heat loss by 50%.[122] Flying insects, a subset of arthropods, are swept along by the prevailing winds,[123] while birds follow their own course taking advantage of wind conditions, in order to either fly or glide.[124] As such, fine line patterns within weather radar imagery, associated with converging winds, are dominated by insect returns.[125] Bird migration, which tends to occur overnight within the lowest 7,000 feet (2,100 m) of the Earth's atmosphere, contaminates wind profiles gathered by weather radar, particularly the WSR-88D, by increasing the environmental wind returns by 15 knots (28 km/h) to 30 knots (56 km/h).[126]

Pikas use a wall of pebbles to store dry plants and grasses for the winter in order to protect the food from being blown away.[127] Cockroaches use slight winds that precede the attacks of potential predators, such as toads, to survive their encounters. Their cerci are very sensitive to the wind, and help them survive half of their attacks.[128] Elk have a keen sense of smell that can detect potential upwind predators at a distance of 0.5 miles (800 m).[129] Increases in wind above 15 kilometers per hour (9.3 mph) signals glaucous gulls to increase their foraging and aerial attacks on thick-billed murres.[130]

  Related damage

  Damage from Hurricane Andrew

High winds are known to cause damage, depending upon their strength. Infrequent wind gusts can cause poorly designed suspension bridges to sway. When wind gusts are at a similar frequency to the swaying of the bridge, the bridge can be destroyed more easily, such as what occurred with the Tacoma Narrows Bridge in 1940.[131] Wind speeds as low as 23 knots (43 km/h) can lead to power outages due to tree branches disrupting the flow of energy through power lines.[132] While no species of tree is guaranteed to stand up to hurricane-force winds, those with shallow roots are more prone to uproot, and brittle trees such as eucalyptus, sea hibiscus, and avocado are more prone to damage.[133] Hurricane-force winds cause substantial damage to mobile homes, and begin to structurally damage homes with foundations. Winds of this strength due to downsloped winds off terrain have been known to shatter windows and sandblast paint from cars.[52] Once winds exceed 135 knots (250 km/h), homes completely collapse, and significant damage is done to larger buildings. Total destruction to man-made structures occurs when winds reach 175 knots (324 km/h). The Saffir-Simpson scale and Enhanced Fujita scale were designed to help estimate wind speed from the damage caused by high winds related to tropical cyclones and tornadoes, and vice versa.[134][135]

Australia's Barrow Island holds the record for the strongest wind gust, reaching 408 km/h (253 mph) during tropical cyclone Olivia on 10 April 1996, surpassing the previous record of 372 km/h (231 mph) set on Mount Washington (New Hampshire) on the afternoon of 12 April 1934.[136] The most powerful gusts of wind on Earth were created by nuclear detonations. The blast wave is similar to a strong wind gust over the ground. The largest nuclear explosion (50–58 megatons at an altitude of about 13,000 ft) generated a 20 bar blast pressure at ground zero, which is similar to a wind gust of 3,100 miles per hour.

Wildfire intensity increases during daytime hours. For example, burn rates of smoldering logs are up to five times greater during the day because of lower humidity, increased temperatures, and increased wind speeds.[137] Sunlight warms the ground during the day and causes air currents to travel uphill, and downhill during the night as the land cools. Wildfires are fanned by these winds and often follow the air currents over hills and through valleys.[138] United States wildfire operations revolve around a 24-hour fire day that begins at 10:00 a.m. because of the predictable increase in intensity resulting from the daytime warmth.[139]

  In outer space

The solar wind is quite different from a terrestrial wind, in that its origin is the sun, and it is composed of charged particles that have escaped the sun's atmosphere. Similar to the solar wind, the planetary wind is composed of light gases that escape planetary atmospheres. Over long periods of time, the planetary wind can radically change the composition of planetary atmospheres.

  Planetary wind

  Possible future for Earth due to the planetary wind: Venus

The hydrodynamic wind within the upper portion of a planet's atmosphere allows light chemical elements such as hydrogen to move up to the exobase, the lower limit of the exosphere, where the gases can then reach escape velocity, entering outer space without impacting other particles of gas. This type of gas loss from a planet into space is known as planetary wind.[140] Such a process over geologic time causes water-rich planets such as the Earth to evolve into planets like Venus.[141] Additionally, planets with hotter lower atmospheres could accelerate the loss rate of hydrogen.[142]

  Solar wind

Rather than air, the solar wind is a stream of charged particles—a plasma—ejected from the upper atmosphere of the sun at a rate of 400 kilometers per second (890,000 mph). It consists mostly of electrons and protons with energies of about 1 keV. The stream of particles varies in temperature and speed with the passage of time. These particles are able to escape the sun's gravity, in part because of the high temperature of the corona,[143] but also because of high kinetic energy that particles gain through a process that is not well-understood. The solar wind creates the Heliosphere, a vast bubble in the interstellar medium surrounding the solar system.[144] Planets require large magnetic fields in order to reduce the ionization of their upper atmosphere by the solar wind.[142] Other phenomena include geomagnetic storms that can knock out power grids on Earth,[145] the aurorae such as the Northern Lights,[146] and the plasma tails of comets that always point away from the sun.[147]

  On other planets

Strong 300 kilometers per hour (190 mph) winds at Venus's cloud tops circle the planet every four to five earth days.[148] When the poles of Mars are exposed to sunlight after their winter, the frozen CO2 sublimes, creating significant winds that sweep off the poles as fast as 400 kilometers per hour (250 mph), which subsequently transports large amounts of dust and water vapor over its landscape.[149] Other Martian winds have resulted in cleaning events and dust devils.[150][151] On Jupiter, wind speeds of 100 meters per second (220 mph) are common in zonal jet streams.[152] Saturn's winds are among the solar system's fastest. Cassini–Huygens data indicated peak easterly winds of 375 meters per second (840 mph).[153] On Uranus, northern hemisphere wind speeds reach as high as 240 meters per second (540 mph) near 50 degrees north latitude.[154][155][156] At the cloud tops of Neptune, prevailing winds range in speed from 400 meters per second (890 mph) along the equator to 250 meters per second (560 mph) at the poles.[157] At 70° S latitude on Neptune, a high-speed jet stream travels at a speed of 300 meters per second (670 mph).[158]

  See also

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Fixer la signification de chaque méta-donnée (multilingue).


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Jeux de lettres

Les jeux de lettre français sont :
○   Anagrammes
○   jokers, mots-croisés
○   Lettris
○   Boggle.

Lettris

Lettris est un jeu de lettres gravitationnelles proche de Tetris. Chaque lettre qui apparaît descend ; il faut placer les lettres de telle manière que des mots se forment (gauche, droit, haut et bas) et que de la place soit libérée.

boggle

Il s'agit en 3 minutes de trouver le plus grand nombre de mots possibles de trois lettres et plus dans une grille de 16 lettres. Il est aussi possible de jouer avec la grille de 25 cases. Les lettres doivent être adjacentes et les mots les plus longs sont les meilleurs. Participer au concours et enregistrer votre nom dans la liste de meilleurs joueurs ! Jouer

Dictionnaire de la langue française
Principales Références

La plupart des définitions du français sont proposées par SenseGates et comportent un approfondissement avec Littré et plusieurs auteurs techniques spécialisés.
Le dictionnaire des synonymes est surtout dérivé du dictionnaire intégral (TID).
L'encyclopédie française bénéficie de la licence Wikipedia (GNU).

Copyright

Les jeux de lettres anagramme, mot-croisé, joker, Lettris et Boggle sont proposés par Memodata.
Le service web Alexandria est motorisé par Memodata pour faciliter les recherches sur Ebay.
La SensagentBox est offerte par sensAgent.

Traduction

Changer la langue cible pour obtenir des traductions.
Astuce: parcourir les champs sémantiques du dictionnaire analogique en plusieurs langues pour mieux apprendre avec sensagent.

 

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